Reforestation in Korea: Past and Present

Forest specialists regard South Korea’s massive reforestation campaign under Park Chung-hee as one of the most successful such efforts in the world. Professor Teplyakov, a noted expert on forest governance, discusses how the ROK accomplished this remarkable success and the challenges facing South Korea’s forests today. Drawing on a recent visit to the DPRK, he also assesses the state of deforestation in North Korea and the current efforts Pyongyang is making to address this serious problem.

Reforestation in Korea: Dramatic Success under Park Chung-hee and Current Efforts in the DPRK

Pre-colonial time
Colonial time (1910-1945)
Korean War (1953-1955)

1. Dramatic success under President Park Chung-hee
2. Current efforts in the DPRK

Potential for two Koreas cooperation in reforestation

Pre-colonial time (before 1920)

In the 1900s wood disappeared from villages for farming, firewood and construction. (South Korean population in 1902: 20 million people)

• Forest: owned by government and open to the public
• Fuel-wood: collection was allowed to everyone
• Forest near villages: already destroyed
• Government timber supply policy: only pine forests protected for timber need

Colonial Past & Korean War

Occupation (1910-1945)

Timber harvested in Korea used for Japanese domestic purposes:

• Construction
• Military purposes
• Fuel

Large scale deforestation:

• Manchurian border (Korean pine)
• Uljin and Bonghwa (pine)
• Near villages for fuel

Korean War (1950-1955)

• During the Korean War the remnants of forests were brutally damaged by bombing, wild fires, and overuse.
• Substantial amount of timber was used as fuel wood for heating and cooking.
• In the long run, this led to over-cutting and illegal logging.

After the Korean War

About 5.5 million people came to South Korea from other countries.

• Massive migration exaggerated the fuel wood shortage
• One million family units = at least 1000 ha of forest

Peat and brown coal were too low in caloric power to reach the demand for traditional heating systems. Results:

• Forestland clearing for farming (slash-and-burn)
• Timber harvesting for houses and infrastructure

Results of deforestation:

Korean peninsula lost a large share of its forests:

• Deforested mountains lost their shape and functionality
• Landslides, floods, soil erosion occurred almost annually
• In 1960, ROK’s average growing stock accounted at less than 10 cubic m/ha

First attempt to solve some of the deforestation problem:

Rhee Syng-man (1875-1965)

During his presidency 1948-1960

• 2.8 billion trees planted
• 1.05 million ha reforested

No success

• Lack of governmental will
• Financial and organizational shortages
• Poor technologies and poor forest protection

Second attempt under General Park Chung-hee (1917-1979)

On 16 May 1961, led military govt to begin immediate eradication of 5 major social ills:

• Smuggling
• Narcotics
• Illegal timber harvesting (enforcing the govt’s will for forest protection)
• Gangsters
• Quai-reporters

Part I: Dramatic Success under President Park Chung-hee

President Park Chung-hee is notoriously known as the president who side-stepped election and in a political coup seized the govt, reigning as a military tyrant till his assassination in 1979. However, he did work good for the country, and one benefit for the Korean people as a whole was the replanting and protection of the forests. In his reforestation project he …

• Showed good leadership
• Developed Saemaul Undong (New Community Movement) as a national idea
• Successfully implemented Korea Forest Service and Forest programs
• Garnered international recognition

2 million households were involved in Saemaul Undong in the early 1970s
through 21,000 voluntary cooperative associations at village level

His strong leadership in reforestation is evident in:

• 1961 June: Forest Products Regulation Act
• 1961 December: Enactment of Forest Law
• 1962 January: Erosion Control Act
• 1962: National Popular Planting Movement (within next 20 years, some 730,000 ha reforested)
• 1963, February: Temporary Act of Forest Reclamation
• 1964: Incidence of a large scale illegal timber harvesting
President Park put a few hundred people in jail
Showed a strong will for wiping out further incidences
• 1967: Establishment of Forest Service (protection and management)
• 1967: Fuel wood plantation: 360,000 ha, 1.4 billion trees in a single year (largest ever)
• 1967: Introduction of National Parks (conservation and recreation)
• 1968: Promotion of chestnut plantation (reforestation and food)
• 1970 (April 22): Saemaul Undong (reforestation, food, poverty reduction) 
• 1971: Greenbelt system adopted (human environment, recreation, etc)

Other reforestation actions he undertook:

• Sikmogil (Arbor Day) – established as a national holiday (until 2005) to rehabilitate deprived lands and to enlighten citizens about the importance of forests.
• During Arbor Days some 643,000 ha of forestlands were rehabilitated coast-to-coast.
• The reforestation strategy was developed and implemented.
• Nationwide erosion control project was initiated.
• A new community movement called “Saemaul Undong” became wide national driving force for reforestation.
• The first 10-year systematic forest development plan was implemented.

The first forest rehabilitation plan

Was to be from 1973-1982 (finished in 6 years with the assassination of Park)
1 million hectares with 2 billion trees were planted in that time.
Saemaul Undong movement (involved women clubs, schools, military, villagers, etc)

• Spiritual inspiration for reforestation: “Planting trees is patriotic activity”
• Self-reliance: fuel wood forest establishment for farmer’s fuel needs
• Cooperation: voluntary participation, income generation, reward (govt subsidies for village)

Saemaul nursery produced 2.9 billion trees in 6 years

Korea received a lot of international recognition of its highly successful reforestation which was accomplished in such a small space of time. The UN FAO Report in 1982 read, “Korea is the only developing country that has succeeded in reforestation after the Second World War.” (Source: H.M. Gregerson “Village Forestry Development in the Republic of Korea: A case study”)

actions taken to prevent soil erosion

The world famous Youngil District erosion control project (pictures represent a 6 year gap in time)

Facts pulled from the archives on Saemaul Undong:

• During 1970-1979, Korea’s average farm household income jumped from $825 to $4,602, settling a milestone in poverty reduction.
• Other data: from 255,000 to 1,531,300 won (without inflation)
• The spirit of “Diligence, Self-help and Cooperation” spread widely among the rural population.
• The movement laid the foundation for Korea to grow into a major economy from one of the world’s poorest countries.
• The experience of the Korean people in this process is a valuable asset for humankind.
• Between 1970 and 2011, some 53,000 public officials and village leaders from 129 nations visited Korea to learn about Saemaul Undong.

The results of reforestation on Korea

• Between 1953 and 2007, forest cover of the country increased from 35-64%
• Between 1961 and 1995, a successful reforestation allowed increasing forest area from 4 million ha to 6.4 million ha
• By 2008, the ROK planted around 11 billion trees
• Between 1950 and 2010, growing stock increased from 9-126 cubic m/ha
• Serf-sufficiency of timber consumption increased
• In 2007, public benefits were valued at US$60 billion

Part II: Current Efforts in the DPRK

Problems have arisen since 1991

The last 20 years has dramatically changed the global political landscape after the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the demise of East-European bloc of countries in 1991.

As well, significant changes in the political map have occurred in Asia, when People’s Republic of China in 1992 established diplomatic relations with the Republic of Korea.

In such developments, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea found itself in difficult circumstances because its two big neighbors—Russia and China—almost terminate their support of DPRK in energy, agriculture, and military spheres.

Especially radical changes began in 1994 when DPRK President Kim Il-Sung passed away, and the government of the country decided to withdraw from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEI), which created an uneasy situation in the region.

Example: Trade between Russia and DPRK

Notice the plunge in resources that the DPRK took from 1990 to 1991. Since 1990 the DPRK has been very cut off from what it had been previously consuming. At the former level, this hit is dire as heating in the cold DPRK is essential in the long winter, and so North Korean forests have been further radically decimated to meet the needs of the common people.

1990 - $2.5 billion (the USSR)

1991 - $365 million (the USSR/Russia)

1995 - $70.1 million

2000 - $38.4 million

2002 - $130 million

2005 - $228 million

2006 - $190 million

2007 - $126 million

2010 - $82.3 million

17 September 2012 – Russia and DPRK reached an agreement that DPRK owes a debt of $11 billion to Russia:

• Russia canceled the DPRK’s debt of $10 billion
• Remaining $1 billion should be spent for joint projects in DPRK in education, health care and in the energy sector

Similarly, if one looks at the light emission/pollution in one of NASA’s global night maps, the US, Europe, Japan and South Korea, and to a lesser extent other countries are brilliantly illuminated. Just north of South Korea is a particularly dark spot on the global map. North Korea has next to no night illumination. The country doesn’t have the resources and neither does it have the imports to facilitate such “visualization”.

Source

Some statistics on the world economies, which are reflected in the NASA night maps:

• In 1980, EU15 had 29% of the world GDP, NAPTA 27%, and East Asia 14%.
• In 2000, EU15 had 25%, while that of NAFTA had increased and East Asia almost doubled. In total, the three regions represented 83% of world GDP.

National economy of North Korea is very vulnerable in facing natural disasters. Thus deforestation and land use change create risks for people’s well-being.

DPRK’s strategy program for reforestation

Main tasks in the general forestation program:

• 10 years: forest recovery stage (establishment of model units and their expansion)
• 20 years: recovery complete stage
• 30 years: escalating forests resources stage

Critical areas for aid and assistance

• Information: need of databases creation for land use, forest activities, biodiversity)
• SFM policies: lack policies and legislation on forest use, planning and management
• Knowledge sharing: lack of clear understanding of land value, causes and consequences of degradation
• Financial aid
• Capacity building

The 19th ASEAN-ROK Summit: ASEAN-ROK Forest Cooperation Agreement

• Signed by the ASEAN-ROK Foreign Affairs Ministers at the 19th ASEAN-ROK Summit on 18 November 2011 in Bali, Indonesia
• Entry into force: 5 August 2012
• Special ASEAN-ROK Ministerial Meeting on Forestry in Seoul, ROK, 30 August 2012

CONCLUSIONS:

• Political environment is very sensitive, but extremely important.
• Flood and drought are major threats to food insecurity in DPRK.
• One of the most efficient methods to resolve environmental and economic problems is reforestation.
• Significance of reforestation should be promoted at all levels of governance and management.
• Establishing real international partnerships at all levels is critical point for the DPRK reforestation and economic growth.
• ROK’s success story is internationally recognized and can be used in DPRK as a pattern, especially Saemaul Undong.
• Forest is a renewable resource, and deforestation is reversible.

________________________________________________________________

Prof. Teplyakov is Professor of Global Forest Governance and Nature Conservation, Seoul National University. Dr. Teplyakov previously served as Professor at Moscow State Forest University, Director of Research at the Russian Federal Forest Service, and Head of the Global Temperate and Boreal Forest Program of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. He is the author and co-author of many articles, chapters and books dealing with forest resources assessments, forest management and governance, international forestry, nature conservation, forest history and a participatory approach in the forestry sector. His most recent co-authored books are “Sustainable Forest Management” (in Russian, December 2009, 2d edition, April 2014), “North Korea Reforestation: International regime and domestic opportunities” (September 2012 in English), Sustainable Forests in 4 volumes (October 2013 in English), 산림과학개론/Introduction in Forest Sciences (May 2014 in Korean), and "A History of IUFRO Congresses and Russia" in 2 volumes (September 2014 in Russian).

Seokjeon Daeje at Munmyo Shrine

Munmyo, literally meaning "Confucian shrine", is also called Seoul Munmyo or Sungkyunkwan Munmyo. It is located at Sungkyunkwan seowon (Confucian school) and is another name for the famed Daeseong-jeon, "Great Sage Hall" there. The first munmyo or shrine was for the honoring and venerating of Confucius and his disciples, a practice that spread widely in Tang China (618-690 and 705-907). Munmyo practices were brought to Korea during the United Silla period (668-935) but didn't become widely practiced until Kim Taejo (reigning 1392-1398) started the Yi or Joseon Dynasty.

During the Joseon Dynasty, other notable scholars from the Goryeo and Silla periods were added, based on their knowledge of Confucianism, and subsequent scholars of the Joseon Dynasty were similarly added. Only scholars who were deemed to be extremely learned, of good character, and who made significant contributions to Confucianism were to be remembered, honored and venerated. Only a total of 18 munmyo bae-hyang, a title of the highest honor for a scholar, have been added to the list of Chinese scholars, thus, the 18 Sages of Korea.

39 Confucians venerated at the shrine:

• The 5 Sages (오성): Confucius, Yangzi, Zengzi, Zisi Zi, Mencius

• The 10 Wise Confucius Disciples (공문10철): Min Sun, Ran Geng, Ran Yong, Zai Yu, Duanmu Ci, Ran Qiu, Zhong You, Yan Yan, Bu Shang, Zhuansun Shi

• The 6 Men of Virtue from the Song Dynasty (송조6현): Zhou Dunyi, Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, Shao Yong, Zhang Zai, Zhu Xi

• The 18 Sages of Korea (동국18현): Choe Chiwon, Seol Chong, An Yu (An Hyang), Jeong Mong-ju, Kim Gwoeng-pil, Jeong Yeo-chang, Jo Gwang-jo, Yi Eonjeok, Yi Hwang, Yi I, Seong Hon, Kim Jang-saeng, Song Siyeol, Song Jun-gil, Pak Se-chae, Kim Inhu, Jo Hun, and Kim Jip (in chronological order of enshrinement)

Seokjeon Daeje: National Rite to Confucius

Twice a year the designated Confucian scholars are venerated, and twice a year the king is carried in a palanquin by 12 men to an eastern gate at Munmyo (the sun rises in the east, as does the power of the king), and only twice a year is the king allowed to walk on the soil outside of his palace. The king is the head of the nation, and has the power set in place by the energies of the universe and therefore he is too highly regarded to walk on the paths of common man. However, the Confucian scholars are to be more highly esteemed than even the king because of their inherent goodness, their righteousness as good men of staggering knowledge and philosophical wisdom, and therefore the king steps down on the common man's soil and walks humbly into Sungkyungkwan seowon where the Munmyo Shrine is located to pay his respects, venerate the scholars and steep himself in Confucianism so that he can govern his country well.

SeokJeon Daeje (National Rite to Confucius)
On the First Jeong (上丁) of Lunar February (22 March 2015 Spring Rite)
Based on the “Stems-and-Branches" (Ten Heavenly Stems and Twelve Earthly Branches)
Daeseongjeon, "Great Sage Hall", also known as Munmyo Confucian Shrine, Seoul - Important Intangible Cultural Heritage 85 (1986 designation)
Munmyo shrine - Historic Site No. 143 (government designation)

Seokjeon is the daeje (ceremony) which honors Confucius and the great scholars. Seokjeon is derived from "seok" meaning "to give" or "to lay out" and "jeon", a Chinese character depiction of alcohol on a stand, thus creating the ideograph for "laying out of an offering". The ceremony traces its roots back to the 4th century in the Goguryeo period (37BC-668) when King Sosurim (371-384) adopted Confucianism. Though the ceremony originated in China, the ceremony there was discontinued in 1949 even before the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), and only restarted in 1984 after a Chinese delegation was sent to Korea to relearn the ritual. Korea is proud of its multi-centuries ritual heritage and in 2011 the ritual was nominated as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, but due to insufficient documentation, was denied although allegedly allowed for resubmission upon including more complete information. Despite this, the ritual is highly esteemed and is registered as Important Intangible Cultural Heritage No. 85.

The ritual has deep cultural significance, and across the peninsula in some 200+ Confucian village schools the ritual is performed in the spring and the fall, based on the lunar calendar. Technically, it is performed on the Sangjeong (上丁, 상정), the first day with the celestial stem of 丁(정) in a month, in the second and eighth months of the lunar calendar.

The ritual itself

The rite entails inviting the spirits to the shrine by burning incense, playing harmonious music, dancing to the points of the universe, offering enticing foods and pouring spirits in front of each Confucian scholar's ancestral tablet for the paying of deep respects. The process is very ritualized and throughout the ceremony a master of ceremonies recites instructions in Classical Chinese whereupon a translator relays them in Korean.

performing absolutions before participating in the ritual

Spirits are welcomed to the earthly ceremony and given their own walkway, the spirit road. All others, including the king, are not to walk on the spirit road, thus the presence of volunteers to warn people away. When Korea was more ritualistic and more highly regulated by Confucianism, to cross the spirit walk was taboo, unless someone stopped, bowed deeply from the waist, before respectfully stepping across. (Source)

After the purification and symbolic cleansing of participants, court musicians play the Myeongan Tune (명안지악) while dancers move harmoniously in the Yeolmun Dance (열문지무). Dancers and court musicians both are grouped in the perfect bagua number of 64, particularly dancers perform in an eight-by-eight grid (팔일무, the "dance of eight"). This number is based on the bagua, literally "eight symbols" (Chinese), which are eight trigrams used in Taoist cosmology that encompass concepts of yin-yang, the five elements, principles of pungsujiri (geomancy) and more. Based on the ancient Chinese Confucian classic I Ching, the bagua consists of the 64 possible pairs of trigrams, the so-called "hexagrams". Therefore, the number of 64 dancers and 64 musicians implies a perfected harmony between the yin and yang, the elements, and the flow and balance between all things celestial and earthly.

the dancers in eight person by eight person alignment symbolizing the perfect harmony of completeness

Dancers perform two dances, the Yeolmun Dance and the Somu Dance (소무지무), the Civil (or Scholars) Dance and the Military (or Generals) Dance. The Civil Dance pays respects to the scholarly, the learned, the poet and the scribe. For both dancers and musicians, performers wear red, the color of congratulations. During the Civil or Scholars Dance, the dancers wearing the black hats connoting 'literature' and hold a 적 (?) in their right hand and a bamboo flute in the left. The dancing is performed to the Seongan Tune (성안지악), switching briefly to the Seoan Tune (서안지악) while the dancers change their headgear and hand-held accessories for the Military or Generals Dance, whereupon the music resumes with the Seongan Tune.

dancers properly attired for the Civil (Scholars) Dance
(black hat and accessories: cheok and bamboo flute)

the red hat, symbolic axe and shield for the Military (Generals) Dance

For the Military Dance, the headgear is red, not for the congratulation intimation of the robes but to symbolize weaponry. The right hand holds a symbolic axe and the left a symbolic shield decorated with a dragon, an auspicious symbol of power and celestial energy. According to Cho In-souk, architect and avid historian, the melody is representative of politeness, eloquence and reflection, and with the flowing hand and body movements is a wish to activate permanent peace and welfare for all people on earth as given by heaven. The dance movements are gestures and body positionings to the four cardinal directions, reaching upward to heaven and pulling the energy downward to earth. The dance represents the whole universe. These two dances are for the literati scholars who not only studied literature but also practiced martial arts according to the teachings of Confucius.

a court musician playing the chuk, the wooden box

The court musical instruments are rarely seen in public but during traditional Confucian rites may appear in ceremony to invoke the spirit world. The instruments used include flutes (hun, so, and bamboo flutes), zithers (seul andgeum), stone chimes (pyeongyeong), bronze bells (pyeonjong), various drums played with sticks, tiger-shaped wooden scraper (eo), wooden box (chuk), and wooden clappers (bak).

In years previous Seokjean daeje was performed on dates according to the solar calendar. However, this spring ceremony marks the return of the ceremony to the carefully regulated dates according to the lunar calendar. One of the reasons given is that this year the lunar calendar date is particularly propitious, so performing such a portentous ceremony on such a propitious date brings augur and vitality.

_ ___________________________________________ _

A particularly excellent resource on the history and steps in the ceremony is Ceremony in Honor of Confucius and the Great Sages – Seokjeondaeje (釋奠大祭, 석전대제). A detailed Korean version is linked in also.

Published in Korean Quarterly, Vol 20, No 3 Spring 2017, p 49, 64-54.

Pottery Kilns and Master Hand Chang-rang Lim

On a Royal Asiatic Society tour a large number of us visited various time-honored kiln sites in the Icheon area, an area noted for fine porcelain because it has two of the most vital resources for making the porcelain -- kaolin (white clay) and plenty of easily accessible firewood. Kaolin was only found in some areas of the country, and the best kaolin close to the capitol was found around Gwangju, Gyeonggi Province. With the heavily wooded areas nearby as well as the Han River for providing a transportation route for moving the raw materials to the kilns and the finished products to the capitol and beyond, Icheon was ideally situated and became the production center for much of Korea's most famous porcelain.

The first stop made was at the kiln of Ji Soo-ku, operator of a rare traditional wood-fired kiln and which is considered to be in the best condition of all the wood-fired kilns still in operation. He took over the kiln when his famous father, Ji Sun-taik, passed away about 12 years ago. Porcelain made by Ji Sun-taik is still being pulled from storage and sold. In his lifetime his pieces were highly valued  and similarly highly priced, and now in his death, the prices have increased commensurably.  To give an idea, one piece of porcelain could equate to the price of an apartment. Ji Sun-taik painted with a unique smokey-colored white, which is not a trait of any other potter.

Working the kiln takes a lot of experience and watchful eyes during the three-day firing process. The most common way for heating the kiln is to initially use pine wood, which has pitch and therefore heats quickly but unfortunately burns quickly too. Once the kiln reaches a temp of 900F, then oak is used as it burns with an intense more easily regulated temperature. Wood that has aged and dried for five years is the preferred woods for firing the kilns and achieving the best results. After the porcelain is fired, it is allowed to cool for a week before breaking the sealed multiple doors of the kiln open. The porcelain is then carefully removed and glazed. Once again the porcelain is put in the kiln, which is duly sealed and this time the temperature is raised to at least 1300F (temp known by the color of the flame). Once again the porcelain is allowed to cool for a week inside the kiln before removal. In the second firing, the porcelain piece amazingly shrinks by up to 20% from its original size.

best condition of a Korean traditional kiln

The store with a few select porcelain of Ji Sun-taik's

Not many potters have a museum attached to their kiln, but due to the fame of Ji Sun-taik, and in posthumous honor of him, his collection of porcelains and other related items can be viewed in his personal collection museum. Of particular note was his very rare collection of yong, or grave goods.

Yong (grave goods)

Mr. Ji Sun-taik's collection of wooden yong, exhibited at Doam-dang, is quite rare and unique since they are all found in Korea and dressed in Korean dresses. Yong is a kind of burial accessory made of wood, earth, ceramic, jade and straw. Yong represent various forms: man, animal, furniture, and utensils, and they are buried with the dead man with the belief that they serve the man after and beyond this life. Yong is the product of the ancient Chinese faith, which explains why it has been found or excavated in various parts of China in large quantities. However, it is quite rare to find yong in the Korean peninsula. For this reason, Ji Sun-taik's collection which is intact and in almost perfect form is of great value and interest.

Various kinds of yong, all of which were found on the Korean peninsula - rare

Kim Jong-mok's workshop and climbing kiln

Kim Jong-mok unfortunately for us doesn't always work on the weekend, but we still got to see his workspace -- just a simple electric wheel for throwing and turning pottery and a large space with loads of shelving to store the clay forms until enough is gathered for firing the kiln. Though the workspace was simple, his creations aren't. He incredibly creates works of art that are so uniform and graceful. A picture below shows the work of art before the first firing.

An example (right to left) of three pieces of porcelain (1) before the first firing, (2) after the first firing and with the top half glazed, and finally (3) after the second firing when the colors are fully sealed under a traditional glaze. Notice that after the second firing there was a very sizable reduction in size. These porcelains were all originally of the same size!

One woman was working in the workshop. She was a design-carver after the a layer of slip was applied. She worked with quick, deft strokes as she carved designs in the slip on the cup. She was racing time as the slip dries quickly.

Kim Jong-mok's climbing kiln

Exquisite and varied porcelains for sale in Kim Jong-mok's adjacent shop

The step-by-step process of making porcelain. Right to left, after the clay is shaped. (1) While the clay is still moist and malleable, designs are etched into the surface. It is allowed to dry and then (2) the clay is dipped in a slip that fills the etchings ... eventually the clay is fired, making it tougher and less delicate to distort from a balanced appearance. After painting select areas with colors containing metal like iron (for black) or copper (for red), the porcelain is fired again but at a hotter temperature than previous, resulting in a shrinkage of 20%. (8) The porcelain is complete. 

Other porcelain artists:

Lee Un-ku - has a kiln in a potter's village; is well-known for his brown Bunchong ware

Kim Se-ryong - has a studio in the same village; known for his blue porcelains and unique carving and cutting techniques

Lim Chang-rang - has a private studio and his own climbing kiln. He is a very active ceramist and paints elaborately, quickly and with graceful freehand strokes. Days before our visit, he had opened his kiln and pulled many large and gracefully shaped pieces out, which were still sitting by the kiln, making a very picturesque worksite. Lim Chang-rang is famous for his white porcelain and use of red copper. The Korean government designated him Master Hand (명장) for his expert artistry.

I loved his studio. It was filled with artsy paraphernalia and some very exotic pieces of porcelain dishes besides his very large vases bearing his exquisitely simple designs.

Master Lim Chang-rang personally wrote a message and signed a book
for every individual who bought one of his pieces.

exquisite Chinese pictograph calligraphy!

For video demonstrations on Master Hand Lim Chang-rang, check out his vimeo page.

Sungkyunkwan University Steeped in Confucianism

In 1398, the 7th year of the reign of King Taejo, Sungkyunkwan seowon (Confucian school) was transferred from Gaesong to Hanyang, now Seoul. The university as we know it today traces its history back to this date; however, Sungkyunkwan University did not exist as a university back in 1398 but rather as a Confucian school for the elite. And for nearly 400 years it functioned as an elitist school open only to a tiny crumb of the population who were both wealthy, well-connected and of proper descent, meaning no sons of concubines no matter how highly positioned the father might be. Namely, only the sons morally connected through hierarchical social structuring - firm values of Confucianism - could attend the Confucian school.

In 1895, the seowon educational criteria was expanded upon and a variety of courses in history, geography and mathematics was launched, thus, the beginning of a myeongryung. It is my understanding that the myeongryung courses were not offered in the seowon but in the large space adjacent. At this time because of the missionaries entering Korea and the concepts of Western education being introduced, a new style of education became desirable, that is, the focus on science and mathematics and social development. Therefore, a new form of entrance exam, determined semester requirements, and how lectures would be conducted in more modern education but still adhering the principles of Confucianism shaped the myeongryung.

During the Japanese colonial period, education of the masses pretty much came to a standstill. For the few who were given higher education or "elite" education, those scholars then had to travel to Japan and attend Japanese-operated universities and educational facilities there. However, after the Japanese colonial period, Kim Chang-suk had educational dreams for Korea and as an educational visionary reopened the myeongryung after the liberation of Japan and restructuring it into a modern-day university. Kim Chang-suk became the first president of what is now Sungkyunkwan University. The university is proud of this educational history and claims the full 600-year history as part of the history of Sungkyunkwan University itself, making it the oldest educational center in Korea. With this history in mind and with on-going respect given to Kim Chang-suk for founding the modern-day learning center, a statue has been erected in front of the Central Library (#08). The statue is on a hill that overlooks the campus to the south - the Millennium Building and onward to the Sungkyunkwan seowon itself.

Kim Chang-suk (1879-1962), styled name Simsan, was a scion for Confucianism and patriotism. His entire life was devoted to the annihilation of the Japanese colonial rule. He posted a letter to the Paris Peace Conference (1919) signed by 137 Confucianists leaders; he raised funds from wealthy Confucians to operate a military against Japanese colonial rule; he  was eventually arrested by the Japanese and tortured until crippled. With the demise of colonialism, he ardently pursued education with the values he upheld to be righteous, Confucianism. Even under Korean rule, the rule of Rhee Syngman, he criticized the autocratic government and was imprisoned several times. He died penniless in 1962, yet he was mourned by the whole nation and given a public funeral.

Because of the Confucian Sungkyunkwan seowon from which it took its name and because of the fierce leadership of Kim Chang-suk, the university was established on Confucian principles. In fact, with its uniqueness as a university stemming from a Confucian seowon, a course in Confucianism was mandatory and set as a core class for all students. Only until around 2000 was this core class dropped from the program and offered merely as an elective to students.

With Sungkyunkwan University's rich history being intimately entwined with the socio-political structuring of Confucianism, three of the central buildings and some of the iconography around campus either allude to Confucian principles or to great Confucian scholars or principle social players.

Sungkyunkwan University campus map with Sungkyunkwan seowon (in low right)
tap to enlarge

In a salute to the early principles of which the university stems, three of the central buildings are named after famous Confucians:

• Toegye Hall of Humanities (#12) is named after Yi Hwang (1501-1570), a child prodigy who later wrote poetry and philosophy. He immersed himself in the study of Neo-confucianism, graduated from Sungkyunkwan seowon and later became daesaseong (head instructor) of Sungkyunkwan seowon in 1552. 

• Dasan Hall of Economics (#11) is named after Jeong Yak-yong (1792-1830), pen name Dasan, meaning "mountain of tea". Dasan was considered one of the greatest thinkers of his time. He attended Sungkyunkwan, wrote highly influential books, held significant administrative positions, and was noted as a poet. His philosophical position is often linked with the Silhak (practical learning school).

• Hoam Hall (#13) derives its name from Lee Byung-cheol (1910-1987), founder of the Samsung Group and one of Korea's most successful businessmen. Hoam basically is 'ho' lake and 'am' large rock. Lee Byung-cheol took Hoam as his art or pen name as the name literally means "filling up space with clear water as lakes do, and being unshakable as a large rock". 

The Millennium Building (#07) otherwise known as the 600th Anniversary Building (built in 1999) is to commemorate the founding philosophy of the university. This building houses the president's office and the main core of the administration. In the basement is a university museum which has court music instruments, aged documents, among other artifacts as well as a gallery of early pictures of Korea by Japanese Fujita Ryosaku, an archaeologist who took pictures of ancient stone constructions, including Seokguram, in the Koreas. Several of his pictures excavating Seokguram and other sites are in the museum photo gallery.

This new logo was fashioned around 2005 when many of the universities in Seoul suddenly refashioned their logo/school emblem. The previous logo was also of a gingko leaf but much less stylized and only dual-colored. Overnight the university shuttle buses were painted with the new logo, all etch-glassed doors were replaced (imagine a lot of doors!). Classroom signs had logos as did classroom podiums; these were replaced last but within a couple of weeks, the old logos were simply a thing of the past!

The logo of Sungkyunkwan University also reflects the principles of Confucianism. The curve of the "S" standing for Sungkyunkwan (University) is part of the gingko leaf that symbolizes the spirit of the university. This gingko leaf plays a uniquely significant part in Confucian history as Confucius is said to have taught his students under a gingko tree, and gingko trees were planted in all Confucius shrines and schools of Korea. Even in the Sungkyunkwan seowon, there are two very large and very old gingko trees, one about 500 years old. They are of massive size and the only remaining feature of the original seowon, which was destroyed by fire. Sungkyunkwan was in fact destroyed by fire twice, one time during the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, and the trees do in fact show residual evidence of having been damaged by fire in some time past.

One of the two trees, both male as only males could enter and attend a seowon and the same evidently applied to tree gender, is believed to have been planted by Yun Tak, the daesaseong, around 1519 in the 14th year of King Jungjong. Together the trees have been designated as Natural Monument No. 59. Even during Japanese occupation, they were appreciated for their great age and similarly appointed as natural monuments by the Japanese.

Layout of Sungkyunkwan seowon

Sungkyunkwan has dual purpose although they - Sungkyunkwan University and Sungkyunkwan seowon - are not really affiliated. Sungkyunkwan University focuses on education while Sungkyunkwan seowon focused on education and the ceremonial; the ceremonial is the primary function of the seowon at present.

Three buildings at the Sungkyunkwan seowon are of special note to the above map and play an important part in the ceremonies currently held. 

Bicheondang - Built in 1664, the name of Bicheondang implies "enlightening the great way" as cited from the famous Confucianist Chu Xi. This building, as well as Myeongnyundang, was a site for the state examination. The present building was reconstructed in 1988 on the site of the original, which burned down during the Korean War (1950-1953).

Myeongnyundang - The lecture hall was the setting for lessons about Confucianism to students. It was established in 1398 but was destroyed during the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592. In the 39th year of the Syeon Dynasty (1606), it was reestablihed. Myeongnyundang was used as the place to carry out the test for the students of Confucianism.

On the W1000 bill is the famed Confucian lecture hall, the Myeongnyundan

Daeseongjeon - Memorial tablets of Confucius and his followers are enshrined in Daeseongjeon. The calligraphy on the board over the gate is the work of Seokbong Han Ho, one of the greatest calligraphers during the Joseon Dynasty period. Originally built in 1398, this building burned down during the invasion of 1592 and was rebuilt in 1602. The shrine, also known as Munmyo Shrine, is an excellent example of the architecture of the time. (Treasure no. 141)

Notice the "spirit walk" on which humans are not to trod but is reserved for the entering and exiting of spirits
 during Confucian rites and ceremonies for welcoming and venerating the spirits.

Jongyeounggak - although not numbered on the map, this building is recognized as Korea's oldest library. The building no longer contains books because of the humidity not being regulated within the building; nevertheless, this building still ranks highly as historically important.