Heavenly Nymphs - 'bicheon'

"Celestial Nymphs, Heavenly Maidens to Transmit the Buddha's Voice: Playing Instruments and Scattering Flowers in Praise of the Buddha"

Celestial nymphs (bicheon) are a type of heavenly being who give offerings and praise to the Buddha by playing instruments, dancing and sprinkling flowers. Though unseen by ordinary people, they fly at will with their supernatural powers. Wherever Buddhas teach or bodhisattvas reside, celestial nymphs fly over them and sprinkle flowers or play instruments. How were these attractive celestial nymphs, who float in the air with their heavenly robes fluttering, introduced to Korea from India through China? Let’s see where these celestial nymphs are found in a temple compound, and further explore the music and instruments they play.

Celestial nymphs are mythological beings that symbolize the beauty and peace of the Buddha realm, the ideal world of Buddhism. As an artistic expression of our desire to fly as well, celestial nymphs can be compared to the angels of Western mythology. However, unlike Western angels who need wings, celestial nymphs of the East, especially those depicted in Buddhism, have much more freedom. The idea that one can fly without wings is a somewhat novel concept by itself. Perhaps celestial nymphs are just an expression of our own inner desire to fly without the aid of wings.

Originating in the Indian districts of Gandhara and Mathura, the concept of celestial nymphs was introduced to China via the Silk Road and then to Korea. A depiction of male and female celestial beings sprinkling flowers is one of the oldest examples of Indian art. In Indian mythology they were considered low ranking devas, and the females were called apsaras or devatas. The most often depicted image of celestial nymphs, afloat in the air with celestial robes fluttering, is reminiscent of the legendary Daoist fairies, but in fact, originally, they were not considered that beautiful. In Indian mythology, depictions of celestial nymphs evolved from images of gandharvas or kinnaras, which may have been animals or birds; nobody is quite sure. They often had a human head and a bird-like body or a horse head with a human body. They evolved into more of a fairy image in China and Korea where imported Buddhist thought coexisted with China’s concept of Daoist hermits. The celestial nymphs depicted in the Dunhuang grottoes had already been transformed into the elegant and charming images of Daoist legends. These beautiful Chinese-style celestial nymphs were introduced to Korea in the late 4th century during Korea’s Three Kingdoms Period, along with Buddhism. After some changes in style, celestial nymphs were established in Korea as what we now call bicheon.

Korea’s Celestial Nymphs Transformed into Beautiful Fairies

Already transformed in China into attractive Daoist fairies, in Korea, celestial nymphs were depicted as beings who could freely soar into the sky or descend to earth draped in fluttering celestial robes. They first appeared in Korea in the murals of Goguryeo dynasty tombs, and on a queen’s pillow discovered in the Muryeong Royal Tomb of the Baekje kingdom. During the Unified Silla era, celestial nymphs appeared as decorative motifs on the nimbi and pedestals of Buddha statues, and on metal artworks such as temple bells and sarira utensils. 

Celestial nymphs in Goguryeo’s ancient tombs have nimbi, their half-naked bodies are elegantly curved, and their robes and wide waistbands, depicted in sophisticated artistic techniques, convey the freedom and feeling of soaring. They look free and unhindered. In murals they convey a sense of the Buddha realm through their total freedom. 

This evolution of Korea’s celestial nymphs continued on the Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple (National Treasure no. 36). The most exquisite of Korean flying celestial nymph images are found on this temple bell, located on Mt. Odaesan. Though rather small in size, the Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple has a multitude of celestial nymphs on its surface, giving the impression they are dancing in sequence. They are depicted playing a lute and a wind instrument called a saenghwang. Their robes flutter upward from the ascending air currents, and the vegetal design on their waistbands heightens their allure. Another temple bell similar in stature to the Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple is the Bell of King Seongdeok (National Treasure no. 29), aka Emille Bell, which is housed in the Gyeongju National Museum. Production of the bell was begun by Silla’s King Gyeongdeok to honor his father King Seongdeok, but it was completed in 771 by his successor, King Hyegong. The bell is known for its aesthetic beauty and graceful form, along with its clear, deep sound. 

Unlike the celestial nymphs on the Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple, those on the Bell of King Seongdeok are presenting offerings to the Buddha, probably because the bell was crafted to pray for the eternal repose of the deceased King Seongdeok. Seated on opposite sides of the dangjwa, the bell’s striking point, two exquisite celestial nymphs captivate even modern designers. Holding lotuses in their open palms, they are kneeling on lotus pedestals. Their cascading robes and necklaces fluttering in the wind, they make offerings while encircled by large and small floral scrolls from heaven. Artworks that are dazzling typically lack loftiness, and lofty artworks typically lack luxuriousness. However, the celestial nymphs on the Emille Bell are both lofty and luxurious. They exude stillness in the midst of movement, and hint at movement in their stillness. 

Although these celestial nymphs are typically inscribed on cold, hard surfaces, such as bells and walls, their free and joyful postures evoke thoughts of subtle music and beautiful scenes of the Pure Land. Singing of the limitless freedom and beauty of the Buddha realm, and the inexhaustible truth of the Buddha, celestial nymphs are eternal symbols that embody the ideals of modern Buddhists. 

Why the Bell of King Seongdeok is called the Emille Bell 

On exhibit in the Gyeongju National Museum, the Bell of King Seongdeok (National Treasure No. 29) is also called the “Emille Bell,” based on a heartbreaking legend. Silla’s King Gyeongdeok wanted to craft a bell for Bongdeoksa Temple to honor his deceased father, King Seongdeok. Although several bells were made, their sound never earned the king’s approval. To augment their sincere devotion, monks began to solicit donations from subjects. One day, a woman from an impoverished family donated her daughter as she had nothing else to give, and legend says the child was put into the molten bronze to make a new bell. When the bell was rung, everyone heard “Emille… Emille…” as if the child was calling her mother. And that’s why it came to be called the “Emille Bell.” Is it true that a child was sacrificed to make a bell? Buddhists don’t even kill insects as Buddhism prohibits all killing. So how could Buddhists make a temple bell, which is supposed to save sentient beings, by sacrificing a child? A scientific analysis of the metal in the bell revealed no phosphorus, which would have been present if human bones had been added. Sometimes legends are just legends. The flying celestial holding an incense burner is clearly and earnestly praying for King Seongdeok to be reborn in the Pure Land.

The Bell of King Seongdeok aka the Bell of Emille (National Treasure No. 29) - Source

Celestial Nymphs Depicted in Temple Compounds Praise the Buddhas Who Live in the Buddha Realm

Although mostly found as decorative design on temple bells, celestial nymphs are also found on the ceilings, main altars and canopies of Dharma halls, and on stone lanterns, monks’ stupas and decorative paintings on the walls of Dharma halls. On the underside of canopies placed above Buddha statues we also see various carved designs of dragons, flames, precious jewels and phoenixes. Surrounding the canopies are celestial nymphs seeming to emerge from the ceiling. These dazzling sculptures give a dramatic effect to the inner space of Buddha halls. Let us find out more about the celestial nymphs adorning these places.

Celestial nymphs are divided into three types: those that play instruments, those that fly and those that make offerings. 

Instrument-playing celestials play various instruments; flying celestials are either descending from heaven or flying horizontally; those making offerings to the Buddha are holding lotuses or incense burners. Temple bells from the 8th century typically feature instrument-playing celestials sitting lightly on clouds with their robes fluttering upward in graceful curves. Temple bells from the late 8th century and 9th century typically feature celestials making offerings while kneeling on lotus pedestals or instrument-playing celestials. In addition to temple bells, celestial nymphs are also found on Dharma halls, pagodas and monks’ stupas. Some noteworthy celestial nymphs adorning Dharma halls are found: on the altar of the Main Buddha Hall at Beomeosa Temple in Busan; on the ceiling of the Main Buddha Hall at Yongjusa Temple in Hwaseong; and those emerging from the ceiling of the Main Buddha Hall of Songgwangsa Temple in Wanju. In the Main Buddha Hall of Yongjusa, celestial nymphs are depicted flying through the air.

Celestial nymphs on the canopy of the Main Buddha Hall at Yongjusa Temple in Hwaseong. With one leg bent back and the other stretched out, two nymphs fly over the heads of Buddha statues, their robes fluttering.

A celestial nymph, adorning the canopy of the Pure Land Hall at Hwa-amsa Temple in Wanju,
flies in dynamic fashion holding a flower in her hand. 

On the ceiling, two celestial nymphs are depicted flying over the heads of Buddha statues and surrounded by flying phoenixes and floating wish fulfilling-gems, symbols of auspicious energy. With one leg bent back and the other stretched out, their postures suggest movement while their robes and arm bands flying upward evoke dramatically the sense of flight. The luxurious flowers adorning their robes and arm bands symbolize devout faith to the Buddha. The whole scene depicts an aesthetically beautiful fantasy or dream. 

The celestial nymphs on the Main Buddha Hall of Yongjusa Temple, though small in size, exude magical power that draws onlookers into the Buddha realm. The stone lantern in front of Ven. Na-ong’s (aka Boje Jonja) stupa at Silleuksa Temple in Yeoju features outstanding bas-relief images of celestial nymphs. On each plane of the octagonal lantern chamber, carved from agalmatolite, an arch-shaped window is cut, and the rest of the plane features elaborate inscription of celestial nymphs and dragons. The face of one celestial nymph holding a lotus bud is damaged, but her graceful body and softly fluttering robes make it easy to imagine her in flight. Her voluptuous body entwined in thin, soft cloth is captivating to the point that we can almost feel her bodily warmth. 

Other noteworthy depictions of celestial nymphs are: those inscribed under the roofstone of National Preceptor Hongbeop’s stupa, retrieved from the Jeongtosa Temple Ruins and now displayed in the National Museum of Korea; Seon Master Cheolgam’s stupa at Ssangbongsa Temple in Hwasun; a monk’s stupa at Godalsa Temple Ruins in Yeoju; the Three-Story Pagoda at Jinjeonsa Temple Ruins in Yangyang. When we see depictions of a celestial nymph, we should look beyond their physical form. With knowledge of their significance, you might feel their free and joyful movements as well as listen to their sublime music resounding through the universe. You might even visualize a scene from the Pure Land with celestial nymphs flying about. Wherever featured in a temple compound, celestial nymphs symbolize our veneration and exultation to the Buddha and the Pure Land.

Celestial Music in Praise of Buddhas’ Merits Instruments Played by Celestial Nymphs

The music played by celestial nymphs expresses the profound joy of Dharma, and the deep sound of liberation that transcends this mundane life confined in a physical body. Playing various wind or string instruments, they lead us to the world of nirvana.

Music has always been closely related to Buddhism as it can effectively praise, adorn and present offerings to the Buddha. Many Buddhist scriptures, including the Lotus Sutra, often feature musical gods like kinnaras and gandharvas, as well as performances of celestial music and music to entertain. However, in principle, temples prohibit music intended to entertain. This includes all music that does not guide one to higher realms of thought; including dancing and singing, as well as gongs and drums. 

The Buddha said, “Singing is not allowed except on two occasions. One is to praise the virtues of great monks and the other is to chant the Impermanence Sutra.” In this way the Buddha warned against music for the sake of one’s enjoyment. A monastic’s foremost task is to cultivate themselves physically and mentally in order to attain enlightenment and to edify sentient beings. “Enchanting music” is an obstacle to Buddhist practice. 

The reason the Buddha allows offerings of music but prohibits singing and dancing is because he has great compassion for people, and those who offer music to the Buddha receive blessings according to their wishes. By integrating passages from various sutras, we can conclude that any singing and dancing should be for the sake of Buddhism’s Three Jewels, and meant to praise the Buddha. Playing music to glorify the Buddha is to achieve great merit and a way to attain the path to Buddhahood.

Instruments for Offerings of Sound 

Celestial nymphs praise the Buddha, play celestial music, sprinkle fragrant flowers and reside in the heavenly realm of abundant joy. That’s why Buddhists believe they can instantly reach the Pure Land of the Buddha if they can even grasp the hem of their fluttering robes. A bipa (a kind of lute) is the instrument most often held by celestial nymphs. Most of the instruments they hold are ancient musical instruments from central Asia. Each nymph seems to be playing alone, but in actuality they are all playing together as an ensemble to express the joy of Dharma. They play blissful music of the Buddhist paradise as described in the scriptures of the Pure Land tradition. 

Of the four heavenly kings that protect temples,
the one in charge of the north holds a bipa (a kind of lute) in his hand.

If you have no idea of what a bipa is, think about the four heavenly kings enshrined in the Gate of Heavenly Kings. One of them is holding a bipa in his hand. Why does this king, the one who protects the BuddhaDharma, holds bipa instead of a sword, arrow, spear or vajra? It is because the bipa enjoyed great popularity in ancient central Asia, where most people lived a nomadic lifestyle and rode horses. As a bipa could be played while riding horseback, many warriors played them. That’s probably why that one king, clad in warrior attire, is holding a bipa. Some noteworthy celestial nymphs playing a bipa are depicted on the pillars of the Main Buddha Hall at Beomeosa Temple in Busan, and on the ceiling of the Main Buddha Hall at Jangnyuksa Temple in Yeongdeok. 

Flute-playing celestial nymphs are inscribed
on the main altar at Gwallyongsa Temple in Changnyeong.

Other instruments used to make offerings of music are the piri (a kind of flute), haegeum (a string instrument resembling a fiddle), janggu (hourglass-shaped drum), saenghwang and bara (spherical hand drum). Most of these are depicted in the Main Buddha Hall of Naesosa Temple in Buan. Every instrument depicted on the ceiling has fluttering robes dangling from it. Beautiful celestial nymphs are also inscribed on the main altar of Gwallyongsa Temple in Changnyeong.

Celestial Nymphs Playing Instruments and Dancing 

Buddhism says we can attain Buddhahood by praising and presenting offerings to the Buddha. In Buddhist art, offerings of music are done by either celestial nymphs or ordinary musicians dancing and playing music. Most human musicians have either the features of heavenly beings or bodhisattvas with haloes, or ordinary people in colorful attire and round hats. Celestial nymphs playing instruments are often depicted on the ceilings of Buddha halls, on pagodas enshrined with Buddha’s cremains, on sarira utensils, and on the platform of an eminent monk’s stupa. 

The nymphs on the ceiling of the Main Buddha Hall at Songgwangsa Temple in Wanju are featured in various scenes playing instruments or dancing. Also seen are traditional Korean elements such as some dance movements in the style of the mask dance and in a woman playing the daegeum (a kind of flute) and wearing a shaman’s hat decorated with a feather. At Silleuksa Temple in Jecheon two symmetrically positioned celestial nymphs are depicted, a style hinting at Chinese influence. 

The stupa for Jijeung Daesa at Bongamsa Temple in Mungyeong features celestial nymphs kneeling with joined palms, as well as others playing various instruments. Some outstanding depictions of celestial nymphs inscribed on stone pagodas include: instrument-playing nymphs on the three-story stone pagoda at Baekjangam Hermitage (affiliated with Silsangsa Temple in Namwon) and the Four-Lion-Three-Story Stone Pagoda at Hwaeomsa Temple. The celestial nymphs inscribed on the base of the Four-Lion-Three-Story Stone Pagoda at Hwaeomsa Temple are meant to offer praise to the Buddha’s sarira which are enshrined within. As can be seen, celestial nymphs play various instruments, dance and sing to praise the Buddha and present offerings of music to the Buddha realm. 

Korean Stone Art Museum: Symbolism and Stone

The Korea Times - March 25, 2016

Asiana, Monthly In-flight Magazine - November 2016

Korean Heritage (web site)

At the Korean Stone Art Museum, all of the stones represent not only cultural art of the past but the symbolism of life beliefs as well!

Muninseok – stone figures representing Joseon literary officials. They are attired in official robes and winged hats or golden headgear (depending on statuary) and carrying a hol (an object held by courtiers when granted an audience with the king). These official garments were worn by courtiers when they participated in national occasions like the king’s wedding and in the national rite for worshipping the late kings and queens of the Joseon Dynasty. During the Joseon era, a pair of stone officials was placed in front of a royal burial mound to serve as guardians of the king’s tomb, along with janggunseok and other animal-shaped stone sculptures similarly symbolizing protection of the graves against evil spirits.

Janggunseok – stone statue of military officers equipped with armor, a helmet and swords. Janggunseok and muninseok were placed in the foremost position in front of the grave mound of the king and together with animal-shaped stone sculptures they guarded the king against evil spirits. The demonic faces often engraved on the hilt of their swords and on the guardian’s shoulders represents warding off evil spirits and providing protection.

Dongja – “child attendants” were placed at a tomb of a person of exalted social class and were believed to serve as messengers of the gods. Therefore, these messengers each held or carried wish symbols—e.g. lotus flowers for prosperity and longevity, a bat symbolizing happiness and fertility, a fan for warding off evil spirits and bringing good fortune. Prayers to the dongja were believed to be realized.

Inside is a Hill of Prayers with a collection of dongja, each having a representative symbolic message

Outside is another dongja collection, with each dongja playing or participating in some mode of daily life—e.g. holding traditional instruments, holding kitchen utensils or playing traditional games. These instrument carvings are also seen on beoksu.

Dongjaseok (not to be confused with dongja, the child attendant) is the stone figure of the dongja. Found in and around Seoul, these sculptures were placed before the graves of high-ranking government officials or members of the royal family, except of high-ranking kings and queens, during the 16th – 18th centuries. Wearing plain clothes at times and other times cloaked in heavenly robes and double-knot hairdos, they were believed to connect the world of the deceased with that of the mourners. They stand obediently and submissively in front of the graves.

Dongja were deemed to serve various gods in Taoism, the Buddha in Buddhism, and the occupants of the graves in Confucianism. Therefore, the shape and role of dongja vary from grave guardian to village guardian, depending on the religious thought. The early child attendant images were highly decorative and vibrant as shown by Buddhist works, but they were gradually superseded by simpler and more austere images under the influence of Confucianism. The statues were often combined with muninseok, or stone statutes of civil officials, after the 17th century, resulting in the disappearance of their original characteristic features.

Beoksu – the stone version of the wooden jangseung (yin and yang guardians), which were placed at the entrance of a village as guardians to frighten away demons and ward off evil spirits and illnesses from penetrating the community. Since beoksu were thought to possess superpowers that could bring good fortune and prevent troubles, people prayed to them in the hope of making their wishes come true.

Though beoksu drove away evil spirits, they did not have a scary look, nor did they have a standard appearance. Various forms with candid and often humorous faces reflected people’s traditions and regional beliefs and practices. 

Some beoksu held pipes as the pipe is a symbol of tranquility and prosperity. And there is the legend of the manpasikjeok, a pipe from Silla, in which people believed that, once the pipe was played, the country would not experience any conflicts. Similarly, playing the pipe was believed to subside waves, a belief also dating back to the Silla Dynasty. Other beoksu had turtles carved on them; in folk belief and Taoism the turtle symbolizes good health, fertility, and longevity and so is one of the 10 traditional longevity symbols. Others held a crane, another longevity symbol and also with auspicious indications, a sickle symbolizing harvest and abundance. or a sword, the symbol of protection. Others simply had a house carving on them, the nest of prosperity and representing the microcosm. During the later part of the Joseon Dynasty, as the incidence of smallpox worsened every year, people started to have a folk belief that beoksu, a Korean traditional totem post, would keep them away from smallpox. Some beoksu even had the character ho(虎) for tiger carved on them, which embodied the villagers’ wish for good health. 

Each house had a carved beoksu, a Korean traditional totem pole, signifying the prosperity of a village community. Beoksu stones are representative of the common people and therefore were more carefree and humorous, and often representative of the character of the regions where they were carved.

Jangmyeongdeung – a stone lantern was placed to light up a graveyard. Its spiritual function for the deceased was to pray for eternal life and enlightenment in the heaven. According to Joseon dynasty (1392 – 1910) law, only high-ranking officials were allowed to place the lantern at their grave mounds. Symbols appear on the sides, e.g. a bat symbolizing happiness and fertility, a cloud for immortality and abundance.

Mangjuseok – stone pillars placed on each side of a grave

Hamabi – dismount markers. Markers such as this one, which commanded “all officials to dismount from their horses” as a show of respect, were placed at the entrance to a palace or the royal ancestral shrine of Joseon Dynasty. Depending on their rank, officials were required to dismount at a specific number of paces before the entrance, e.g. senior officials were required to dismount 10 steps before it, mid-ranking officials 20 steps, and low-ranking officials 30 steps. 

Prayer for rain stone – a dragon-engraved stonework used in rain rituals. As dragons were symbolically portrayed as the “god of water” in many Eastern cultures, precipitation rituals were held in the presence of a dragon-engraved stonework or in front of a dragon-shaped rock or well.

Stone Buddha – the statue of Buddha made by civilians showing austere and natural beauty

Deva King (Vajradhara) – one of the guardian deities in Buddhism, usually positioned to the left and right of temple gates to repulse evil spirits

Picture Credits:

While I took many pictures while at the Korean Stone Art Museum, I didn't get a representative shot of all of the categories listed above, so to be consistent in providing example pictures, I've only posted picture carefully clipped from the Google Arts & Culture collection for the Korean Stone Art Museum, so all photo credits go to them.

About the collection, it was first launched under the name of the Google Art Project on 1 February 2011, with the goal of collecting high-resolution images of artworks housed in partner museums around the world and creating a cyber platform with "walk through" features, providing information on galleries and artworks. By April 2012 the art project platform had signed agreements with 151 museums in 40 countries, and in 2016 the Korean Stone Art Museum was added to the online digital collection. As of the end of December 2018, 45 museums in Korea have had representative collections digitalized and posted on the Google Arts & Culture collection, the revised name the Google Art Project. The Korean Stone Art Museum is one of these 45!

Buddha-Rock at Bullamsan

The Royal Asiatic Society offered an interesting walking tour to Bulam-san, "Buddha-Rock Mountain", guided by Professor David Mason. Bulam-san is a prominent pyramid-shaped mountain on the eastern border of Seoul and is situated beyond Taeneung royal tomb site and beyond and behind Sahmyook University. The peak of the mountain divides Seoul and Kyunggi-do and its eastern slopes flow energy down (pungsujiri) to the cities of Guri and Namyangju. With some imagination the mountain supposedly resembles a gigantic Buddha sitting in meditation. 

Cheonbo-sa, "Heavenly Treasure Temple"

Immediately to the west of Bulam-san is another mountain with rounded peak and settled slightly lower than Bulam-san. This mountain known colloquially as Cheonbo-san, or "Heavenly Treasure Mountain", is where the tour started. On the higher slope of the mountain is Cheonbo-sa, "Heavenly Treasure Temple", which has been completely rebuilt since the Korean War as this area harbored many guerrillas and numerous battles between the North and South Koreans took place here. The main building both internally with bright and rather gaudy Buddhas and boddhisatvas and externally with two tacky white elephants on the roof spine of the main hall showcase modern decor. The white elephants, in earlier times not frequently borrowed into Korean Buddhism, are regarded as spiritual creatures as the night before the birth of "lord buddha" his mother had a vision of a white elephant presenting her with a lotus, the symbol of purity, and so white elephants have become a symbol of Mahayana Buddhism, which Korean Buddhism falls under.

The backdrop of the main buddha hall is a huge rock, which comprises the massive peak of the mountain, and a female monk who welcomed us and followed us around a bit told us that when you look carefully, you can see the elephant in the mountain. It's easier seen in the calendar shot she presented to us (see below). Even if you can't see the "elephant", there are two Buddhas carved into the face of the granite rock wall, one easily visible above the treetops and the other obscured by the trees but much more obvious on the trail immediately at the base of the massive rock. The higher buddha is etched and loses much visibility when at the base but the other buddha carved in bas relief with modern power tools is large and very obvious.  

The "elephant" in the rock. Once the elephant's eyes were pointed out the outline and shape of the trunk was very obvious. It was much harder to see the elephant when looking at the rock itself, but that might be an affect of different light angle.

the main Buddha hall of Cheonbo-sa

Two Buddhas carved into the rock above the main Buddha hall. The lower Buddha is in obvious and very pronounced bas relief but the higher one (not easily visible from this angle with the afternoon light) is only etched and is much harder to see. This etched Buddha, however, can quite easily be seen from a distance and is just visible over the treetops.

Bulam-sa, "Buddha Rock Temple"

From Cheonbo-sa we hiked along a mountain trail for 20 or so minutes to Bulam-sa on the pyramid-shaped mountain. Bulam-sa has a very long history and is said to have been a Seon meditation temple founded in the mid-800s in the late Silla Dynasty and undergoing restoration and rebuilding over the centuries. In the Korean War it was almost totally destroyed but has been rebuilt by the Jogye Order. Many rock carvings are also in this rather large temple ground, but of rather recent and curious interest is the addition of the tall Chinese zodiak pillars, obvious incorporation of Daoist symbolism in a Buddhist temple that has sanshin, "mountain god", stonework and of course the sanshin-gak, the small building almost universally present in Korean Buddhist temple grounds. 

Great lighting with Professor David Mason.
Obviously this picture was shot just prior to Buddha's birthday.

The Chinese Daoist zodiac icons on Buddhist temple grounds that respect and have spiritual provisions and dedicated building for the sanshin, the mountain spirit.

Yong-wang, King of the Dragons

King of the Dragons
The Yong-wang and other Dragons in Korean Shrines

Both pictures as posted via RASKB email transmission of the event, Nov 2017

Professor David Mason has a fascination with Yong-wang, the Dragon King, an ancient mythological spirit here in Korea. For years David has sleuthed around Korea watching ceremonies related to the Dragon King, intensively studied the shrines dedicated to the Dragon King in the back regions of Buddhist temple compounds, and trailed images of dragons and other iconography that, for those in the know, depict the Dragon King. When I heard that David gave a lecture at the Dongguk University Seon Center on Nov 19, 2016 on the topic, I asked if he would change his upcoming lecture for the Royal Asiatic Society on 

Solitary Sage: Korea's “Go-un” Choi Chi-won Book By Professor David to this unique lecture on the Dragon King. Obviously he did! Thank you, Professor!

A summary of his Yong-wang lecture:

Dragons have always played a key role in Oriental traditions, especially in religious and governmental artworks. They are plentifully employed in Korean royal palaces, Shamanic and Confucian shrines, and Buddhist temples as uplifting and protective spiritual guardians of the heavens. They are found depicted on furniture and on many artifacts, believed to bring good fortune to the owners. 

“Dragon” is one of the 12 auspicious figures of the oriental zodiac — as the leader of them all. The word itself is heavily employed in all eastern languages, and appears within an extremely high percentage of place names and other names, in comparison with other words. Looking deeper, in Korea they are presented much less as motifs of heaven-granted authority as in China, but more as symbols of the vital energies of water and its life-sustaining cycles as it moves through transformations – and the depictions have subtle characteristic differences.

Most Korean Buddhist temples have at least a small shrine for Yong-wang the dragon-king, and he also appears in Guardian Assembly Icons and some paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion. There are many interesting myths about appearances and behavior of this royal figure within Korean Daoist, Buddhist and folklore traditions. This lecture, well depicted through many colorful photos of the artworks and shrine, will explain about dragons and their monarch, and the role they play in eastern spirituality.

______________________________________________

The video link to this unique lecture is on the Royal Asiatic Society blog site titled Lecture Video: King of the Dragons, or on YouTube: King of the Dragons: The Yong-wang and other Dragons in Korean Shrines (1:12:19).

Falun Gong

In the summer of 1999, after thousands of practitioners had staged a silent protest in Beijing against unfair treatment, the Chinese Party leadership saw the group as a threat to communist rule, declared it as an evil cult, and launched a massive campaign to eliminate Falun Gong in China. Since then thousands of practitioners have been locked up and tortured to death, and people are scared to associate with Falun Gong due to government campaigns and threat tactics.

Falun Gong combines Buddhist with Taoist meditation and exercises; the religio-philosophy follows the principles of truth, benevolence and tolerance as preached by the founder Li Hongzhi, who practitioners refer to as Teacher Li. At the turn of the century there were hundreds and thousands of followers within China. Typically twice a day Falun Gong groups gather to meditate and practice Falun Gong exercises, which are much like the movements of tai chi. After meditations and exercises, they read Teacher Li's book, which is a guide on how to cultivate one's mind and be a good person.

After late July 1999, Falun Gong was declared a cult and an illegal organization and practitioners were summarily ordered not to practice it anymore. At first those caught had to read government propaganda materials and denounce Falun Gong publicly. Then some provincial governments assigned a quota to each local public security bureau or government agency, ordering them to reform Falun Gong members, and if a certain official exceeded the quota, he or she would be awarded a cash prize. More and more practitioners were refusing to denounce their beliefs, and so before the year was out, local police began searching homes for Falun Gong materials and treating each practitioner like a criminal. If a person was caught with "incriminating evidence", then his or her whole family was blamed and punished.

The above information is taken from Liao Yiwu's "The Falun Gong Practitioner", The Corpse Walker: Real-Life Stories, China from the Bottom Up (2008) p. 230-241, a book that had to be smuggled outside of China in order for it to be published.

Eyewitness Recounts Forced Organ Removals From the Falun Gong in China,
from the blog The International Coalition Against Human Trafficking

PAMPHLET ON FALUN GONG

In Korea there are a few Falun Gong practitioners, some undoubtedly refugees from China. Near the gates of Jongmyo Falun Gong practitioners gather to meditate and frequently in Insadong pamphlets are handed out to passersby. I accepted a pamphlet in English after pausing on the sidewalk to look at the signboards of torture that has been inflicted on Falun Gong in China.

The front of the pamphlet reads, "Help end the 11-year-long persecution of Falun Gong".

Q: Why should I care?

A: Chinese communists export state terror. Chinese regime uses political and economic pressure to silence the media and politicians. Chinese regime uses the state-run media to cover up their human atrocities, and spread its propaganda and hate campaign worldwide. We must take action. Each voice counts!

Q: How can I help?

A: Please inform the media and your elected officials. Please help spread the facts of the persecution. www.faluninfo.net

Q: What is the Falun Gong?

A: Falun Gong, also known as Falun Dafa, is a mind-body practice based on Truthfulness-Compassion-Tolerance. It was first introduced to the public in 1992 by Mr. Li Hongzhi. By 1999, there were 100,000,000 people practicing Falun Gong inside China alone. Today, it's practiced in over 110 countries around the world.

Falun Gong Exercises and Meditation

• Good for all ages
• Relieve stress and anxiety
• Gain energy and inner strength
• Improve physical and mental health
• Attain greater wisdom and spiritual growth

The Teachings of Falun Gong

• Falun Gong, an introductory book with illustrations of the exercises and explanations of the priniciples.
• Zhuan Falun, the systematic and comprehensive guide for the Falun Gong practice.
• Free downloads at www.falundafa.org

Q: Why the persecution?

A: "Communist Party sources said that the standing committee of the Politburo did not unanimously endorse the crackdown and that President Jiang Zemin alone decided that Falun Gong must be eliminated." John Pomfret, Washington Post, Nov 12, 1999.

The former Chinese Communist dictator Jiang Zemin launched this persecution in July 1999. Why?

• Jiang was jealous of Falun Gong's popularity -- by 1999, 70-100,000,000 people were practicing in China. This outnumbered the Communist Party membership.
• Jiang was insecure about his power, and feared losing control over people's minds.
• The Communist dictatorship could not tolerate any other beliefs. Falun Gong helps people gain higher morality and spiritual growth. Jiang viewed this as the biggest threat to his corrupt regime.

In order to coerce practitioners to give up their belief in Truthfulness-Compassion-Tolerance, Jiang founded the 610 Office (a gestapo-like organization), and deployed the most extreme tortures in human history: live organ harvesting, brainwashing, physical and mental torture, psychiatric abuse, etc.

At least 3,304 practitioners are confirmed to have died from torture in police custody as of October 1, 2009. The actual death toll well exceeds this.

Live Organ Harvesting Exposed

Vital organs including hearts, kidneys, livers and corneas are systematically harvested from live Falun Gong practitioners and sold and transplanted at enormous profit. Their bodies are cremated on site to destroy the evidence.

"... further investigation has only reinforced our original conclusions that the allegations are true." David Kilgour, former Canadian Secretary of State (Asia-Pacific region) and David Matas, human rights lawyer and author of Bloody Harvest: Revised Report into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China. www.organharvestinvestigation.net

"I think it is time to put the Chinese Communist regime on trial for genocide. I firmly believe that what we are doing today [unclear what that is] should be carried out in every city of the world and every day until justice is served." Edward McMillian-Scott, Vice-President of the European Parliament, press conference in London.

"Organ harvesting has been inflicted on a large number of unwilling Falun Gong practitioners at a wide variety of locations for the purpose of making available organs for transplant operations." Manfred Nowak, the United Nationals Special Rapporteur on Torture.

"... at least 87,000 Falun Gong practitioners have had their organs harvested by the Chinese Communist regime in these years." Ethan Gutmann, China expert and the author of the book Losing the New China.

_______________________________________________________________________

And a one-hour documentary on illegal organ harvesting of Falun Gong in China:
Harvested alive -10 years investigation of Force Organ Harvesting.

Nat'l Master Doseon Guksa: His Pungsujiri Legacy

Professor David Mason, of Chung-Ang University, is a long-time researcher (32 years in Korea) on the religious characteristics of the mountains in Korea. In 2011 he was appointed Honorary ambassador of the Baekdu-daegan ranges by the Korea Forest Service. He has authored 10 books on Korean culture and tourism, including the Encyclopedia of Korean Buddhism and Spirit of the Mountains, which is about Korea's traditions of spiritual mountain worship. His has a website on sacred Korean mountains and mountain-spirits.

Back in May 2015, Professor Mason presented at the RAS on Doseon Guksa:

Doseon Guksa [Tao-Abundance National-Master] (826-898) is one of the most important and interesting Buddhist leaders of Korean history, but often remains overlooked, including by the mainstream Jogye Order. He lived during the collapsing end of the Shilla Dynasty, presaging the foundation of the subsequent Goryeo Dynasty. He was both a great Buddhist master of meditation of the Seon [Zen] tradition as well as an enlightened Sutra-Master, an extremely rare combination of achievements. But the main reason for his fame are his masterful creation of Korean pungsujiri (geomancy), the concept of the Baekdu-daegan mountain-spine-of-Korea, and the establishment or improvement of some of our greatest extant temples. Professor Mason will explain Master Doseon’s biography and explain Master Doseon's significance in the shape of Buddhism today.

National Master Doseon Guksa: His Legacy of Pungsujiri & the Great Temples

Brief biography

• Doseon Guksa, literally "Dao-Abundance" (826-898), was uniquely double-enlightened. 
• He presages the unification of Korean Buddhism.
• He was a Buddhist master of geomancy and became the creator of Korean punsujiri-seol.
• He created the concept of the Baekdu-daegan (spine of the Korean mountain).

Birth and early life

• Born in Yeongam-gun [Spirit-rock county] of Jeollanam-do, on the western slopes of Wolchulsan. Popular thought is that he descended from a secondary son of Silla's Great King Taejong Muyeol (r. 664-681).
• His mother had a conception-dream of her swallowing a beautiful pearl, very propitious, so during her pregnancy she chanted Buddhist scriptures and like a good Buddhist abstained from meat, onions and garlic.
• From infancy Doseon was a Buddhist prodigy, learning to chant Buddhist sutras soon after he learned to talk. 
• One local myth has it that he was accidentally abandoned after birth, but was protected by birds at a gigantic boulder called Guksa-am [National Master Rock], located behind Wolchusan's Gukam-sa hermitage.

Becoming a monk at Wolchusan

• Doseon spent the latter part of his childhood at Munsu-am [Boddhisattva of Wisdom Hermitage] on the wester slopes of Wolchulsan.
• At Wonam-sa [Moon-south Temple] on the southeastern side of Wolchulsan his hair was first shorn as he officially became a novice-monk. 
• At the age of 15 he moved to Hwaom-sa in Jirisan, [Exquisite Wisdom Mountains] but locally known as "the mountain of the odd and wise people", where many people devoted efforts to seek truth and happiness. There he was accepted to study Hwaom Buddhism. 

First enlightenment at Hwaom-sa, Jirisan

• Legend has it that he attained "the ineffable wisdom of Munsu-bosal and the mystic gate of Bohyeon-bosal, penetrating the great meaning of the Hwaom-gyeong Sutra" in only three years!
• He was given the name "Yeong-gi", which was a great honor as that was the name of the missionary-founder master-monk who first built Hwaomsa in 544.

Monk at Taean-sa

• By age 20 he was already highly respected as "a very wise adept with unusual spiritual powers of the sort usually attributed to Daoist masters", and he began to study Seon [Zen] under the great master and sect-founder Hyecheol Jeogin-seonsa (d. 861) at Taean-sa monastery.

Second enlightenment as monk at Taean-sa

• He achieved full Seon enlightenment at Taean-sa, receiving the mubeob-beob [the Dharma without Dharma] transmission from Hyecheol, in just 3 years, becoming Hyecheol's leading successor.
• As a result, he was "double-enlightened" in both scholastic Hwaom and Seon schools, the only known case from ancient and medieval times. (300 years later the Unification of Korean Buddhism was accomplished by Ji-nul Bojo Guksa and these two schools were no longer separated in large ideology.)

Studies in China

• Around 850, Doseon Guksa then traveled to China for further advanced studies, which focused on esoteric Daoist and Buddhist astronomical, astrological, mathematical, geomantic (feng shui aka pungsujiri), cosmological and I Ching (Juyeok-gyeong) teachings. [Some modern scholars, perhaps for reasons of national pride, doubt whether he went to China at all.]

Return to Korea: Establishing Dogap-sa

• Legend says that upon Doseon's return from his studies in China, he reconstructed Wolchul-san Munsu-am on the upward parts of a valley and renamed it Dogap-sa. [All that scholars know for sure is that Dogap-sa was large, famous and prosperous during the Goryeo Dynasty, and its official history claims Doseon as its founder. The temple is within the Wolchulsan National Park and is well-known today. It promotes Doseon as the leading factor of its legacy and now has a museum dedicated primarily to him.]

Return to Korea: Observant wanderer

• After establishing Dogap-sa, Doseon trekked widely around the Korean peninsula, observing its geography and searching for the source of its unique energies, refraining from basing himself with any particular temple.

Return to Jirisan

• After his extensive travels, he built a hut to rest, located on Nogo-dan, Jirisan.

Pungsujiri

• In Jirisan at "Sand Chart Village" sanshin appeared to him, offering the deepest of pungsujiri as (another "method by which great Bodhisattvas grant salvation to humankind." [Perhaps a nationalistic claim that his pungsujiri system/wisdom came from an indigenous-Korean source and not from a Chinese feng-shui source.]
• Punsujiri, aka Korean geomancy, is derived from Chinese feng-shui, but is in some ways different. Doseon applied it to Korean geography and outlook. 
• Pungsujiri had been practiced for over 1100 years and by all Korean traditions: shamanists, Buddhists, Neo-Confucianists, Daoists.
• It applies to tombs, buildings, towns, gardens, temples, etc, but Doseon raised its practice to a national scale.
• Doseon's system is often called "bibo-pungsujiri", bibo being the Chinese character for "hidden treasure" or "national property", and this style focuses on "harmony of nature". 

Baekdu-daegan [White-head Great-ridge]

• Doseon conceptualized it as "the spine of Korea".
• Mountain system running down the entire peninsula with a mildly sacred character.
• Baekdu-daegan is comprised of:

• divider of regions

• magnificent scenery

• origin of spring waters

• Buddhist temples

• Neo-Confucian shrines

• shamanic shrines

• historical and folk sites

• passes through 7 National Parks and 4 Local Parks

Two maps of the baekgu-daegan - the right map focuses on the primary mountains of the Koreas, and it was on these primary peaks, which Doseon believed flowed with natural earth energy, and where he built his primary temples most fiercely associated with pungsujiri principles.

Settling at Baegunsan

• Doseon finally settled down to teach disciples in what he called Baeghak-dong [White Crane Village, paralleling Jirisan's Azure Crane Village] on the southern slopes of Baegunsan [White Clouds Mountain] after determining it as an ideal geomantic location and would be safe from troubles. 
• He then founded, constructed and lived at Okryong-sa [Jade-Dragon Temple] in what is now Gwangju city, and subsequently taught there for 35 years with occasional travels around Korea. He assisted hundred of adepts to achieve enlightenment.

portrait of Doseon at Baegun-sa Unam-sa

Great Master of Silla

• He is said to have been a man of few words, teaching the mubeob-beob by museol-seol [the explanation without explaining], and was able to spark realization with only a piercing gaze.
• His reputation for wisdom and insight-powers eventually got him proclaimed as Silla's leading Master Monk by King Heon-gang, and Doseon was invited to lecture at the palace in Gyeongju several times.

Doseon became a builder of temples:

Seoul's Samgak-san Doseon-sa

Seoul's Ansan Bongwon-sa

Seoul's Bulamsan Bulam-sa

Posthumously the advisor to Goryeo Taejo Wang Geon

• Doseon was the most influential advisor to Wang Geon (born 877), destined to become Goryeo's King Taejo (r.918-943) in founding the Goryeo Dynasty ... although they never met.
• The tale often told is that in 875 Doseon passed by a mansion under construction at Songak-san (near today's Gaeseong City) and recognized the grand auspiciousness of the site that would confer a fresh mandate of heaven, and predicted the birth to a son who would grow up to be a great man, to lead a new age for Korea. He gave the man a sealed document and told him to keep it safe and secret, only giving it to the boy when he attained maturity. This was done ...

Architect of Goryeo Dynasty

• The advice and ideas Doseon left behind him, especially in the Doseon-bigi, were important in choosing the site of the capital and other important cities and fortresses, and in constructing many new grand Buddhist temples at geomantically-auspicious sites around the nation. It is recorded that when Taejo Wang Geon had defeated the last of the rivals and re-unified Korea, he first built Gaetae-sa [Exalted Beginning Temple] in a long narrow valley just south of the highly sacred Gyeryongsan, which Doseon had recommended, to express his gratitude towards the Buddhas and mountain-spirits, and to seek their further beneficence.

Improvements to Hwaom-sa

Passing on to Nirvana

• Doseon is recorded to have died in 898 while sitting in the lotus position in front of his many disciples at Baegunsan, Okyong-sa, but no budo was found there.
• The remarkable budo behind Jirisan Yeongok-sa might be his, and its architectural elements support this theory, but its accompanying biseok is missing (probably destroyed) so we can't be sure.
• Some Koreans believe that Doseon actually became a shinseon [Daoist-type "immortal"] upon achieving nirvana, and continued to advise Taejo Wang Geon and than Muhak Wangsa, founder of Seoul, in spiritual form.

Legacy of temples

• Around 70 monasteries, both large and small, are claimed to have been founded either under Doseon's supervision and direction or by the orders of Taejo Wang Geon (following Doseon's recommendations). Most of them still thrive.
• The 22 temples said to have been founded by Taejo Wang Geon under Doseon's influence are all fairly minor today; the most significant among them is probably Gyeryongsan Gaetae-sa.
• Temples that are claimed to have been established either by Doseon or Wang Geon at the places that Doseon decided would be most auspicious are called bibo-sacheol, and pagodas built at such places are bibo-satap.
• There are dozens of pre-existing temples that are thought to have been reconstructed, renovated or added to (usually with a pagoda) due to Doseon's influence. These include some of Korea's greatest, such as Jirisan's Shilsang-sa, Yeongok-sa and Jongyesan Seonam-sa.
• Additionally, a dozen important stone-carved Buddha statues and pagodas are said to have been carved or built by Doseon himself, including the famous gigantic Gwanse-eum-bosal relief at Doseon-sa, not to mention a dozen caves and crags around Korea that claim to be sites where he practiced his mystical arts.