Heavenly Nymphs - 'bicheon'

"Celestial Nymphs, Heavenly Maidens to Transmit the Buddha's Voice: Playing Instruments and Scattering Flowers in Praise of the Buddha"

Celestial nymphs (bicheon) are a type of heavenly being who give offerings and praise to the Buddha by playing instruments, dancing and sprinkling flowers. Though unseen by ordinary people, they fly at will with their supernatural powers. Wherever Buddhas teach or bodhisattvas reside, celestial nymphs fly over them and sprinkle flowers or play instruments. How were these attractive celestial nymphs, who float in the air with their heavenly robes fluttering, introduced to Korea from India through China? Let’s see where these celestial nymphs are found in a temple compound, and further explore the music and instruments they play.

Celestial nymphs are mythological beings that symbolize the beauty and peace of the Buddha realm, the ideal world of Buddhism. As an artistic expression of our desire to fly as well, celestial nymphs can be compared to the angels of Western mythology. However, unlike Western angels who need wings, celestial nymphs of the East, especially those depicted in Buddhism, have much more freedom. The idea that one can fly without wings is a somewhat novel concept by itself. Perhaps celestial nymphs are just an expression of our own inner desire to fly without the aid of wings.

Originating in the Indian districts of Gandhara and Mathura, the concept of celestial nymphs was introduced to China via the Silk Road and then to Korea. A depiction of male and female celestial beings sprinkling flowers is one of the oldest examples of Indian art. In Indian mythology they were considered low ranking devas, and the females were called apsaras or devatas. The most often depicted image of celestial nymphs, afloat in the air with celestial robes fluttering, is reminiscent of the legendary Daoist fairies, but in fact, originally, they were not considered that beautiful. In Indian mythology, depictions of celestial nymphs evolved from images of gandharvas or kinnaras, which may have been animals or birds; nobody is quite sure. They often had a human head and a bird-like body or a horse head with a human body. They evolved into more of a fairy image in China and Korea where imported Buddhist thought coexisted with China’s concept of Daoist hermits. The celestial nymphs depicted in the Dunhuang grottoes had already been transformed into the elegant and charming images of Daoist legends. These beautiful Chinese-style celestial nymphs were introduced to Korea in the late 4th century during Korea’s Three Kingdoms Period, along with Buddhism. After some changes in style, celestial nymphs were established in Korea as what we now call bicheon.

Korea’s Celestial Nymphs Transformed into Beautiful Fairies

Already transformed in China into attractive Daoist fairies, in Korea, celestial nymphs were depicted as beings who could freely soar into the sky or descend to earth draped in fluttering celestial robes. They first appeared in Korea in the murals of Goguryeo dynasty tombs, and on a queen’s pillow discovered in the Muryeong Royal Tomb of the Baekje kingdom. During the Unified Silla era, celestial nymphs appeared as decorative motifs on the nimbi and pedestals of Buddha statues, and on metal artworks such as temple bells and sarira utensils. 

Celestial nymphs in Goguryeo’s ancient tombs have nimbi, their half-naked bodies are elegantly curved, and their robes and wide waistbands, depicted in sophisticated artistic techniques, convey the freedom and feeling of soaring. They look free and unhindered. In murals they convey a sense of the Buddha realm through their total freedom. 

This evolution of Korea’s celestial nymphs continued on the Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple (National Treasure no. 36). The most exquisite of Korean flying celestial nymph images are found on this temple bell, located on Mt. Odaesan. Though rather small in size, the Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple has a multitude of celestial nymphs on its surface, giving the impression they are dancing in sequence. They are depicted playing a lute and a wind instrument called a saenghwang. Their robes flutter upward from the ascending air currents, and the vegetal design on their waistbands heightens their allure. Another temple bell similar in stature to the Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple is the Bell of King Seongdeok (National Treasure no. 29), aka Emille Bell, which is housed in the Gyeongju National Museum. Production of the bell was begun by Silla’s King Gyeongdeok to honor his father King Seongdeok, but it was completed in 771 by his successor, King Hyegong. The bell is known for its aesthetic beauty and graceful form, along with its clear, deep sound. 

Unlike the celestial nymphs on the Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple, those on the Bell of King Seongdeok are presenting offerings to the Buddha, probably because the bell was crafted to pray for the eternal repose of the deceased King Seongdeok. Seated on opposite sides of the dangjwa, the bell’s striking point, two exquisite celestial nymphs captivate even modern designers. Holding lotuses in their open palms, they are kneeling on lotus pedestals. Their cascading robes and necklaces fluttering in the wind, they make offerings while encircled by large and small floral scrolls from heaven. Artworks that are dazzling typically lack loftiness, and lofty artworks typically lack luxuriousness. However, the celestial nymphs on the Emille Bell are both lofty and luxurious. They exude stillness in the midst of movement, and hint at movement in their stillness. 

Although these celestial nymphs are typically inscribed on cold, hard surfaces, such as bells and walls, their free and joyful postures evoke thoughts of subtle music and beautiful scenes of the Pure Land. Singing of the limitless freedom and beauty of the Buddha realm, and the inexhaustible truth of the Buddha, celestial nymphs are eternal symbols that embody the ideals of modern Buddhists. 

Why the Bell of King Seongdeok is called the Emille Bell 

On exhibit in the Gyeongju National Museum, the Bell of King Seongdeok (National Treasure No. 29) is also called the “Emille Bell,” based on a heartbreaking legend. Silla’s King Gyeongdeok wanted to craft a bell for Bongdeoksa Temple to honor his deceased father, King Seongdeok. Although several bells were made, their sound never earned the king’s approval. To augment their sincere devotion, monks began to solicit donations from subjects. One day, a woman from an impoverished family donated her daughter as she had nothing else to give, and legend says the child was put into the molten bronze to make a new bell. When the bell was rung, everyone heard “Emille… Emille…” as if the child was calling her mother. And that’s why it came to be called the “Emille Bell.” Is it true that a child was sacrificed to make a bell? Buddhists don’t even kill insects as Buddhism prohibits all killing. So how could Buddhists make a temple bell, which is supposed to save sentient beings, by sacrificing a child? A scientific analysis of the metal in the bell revealed no phosphorus, which would have been present if human bones had been added. Sometimes legends are just legends. The flying celestial holding an incense burner is clearly and earnestly praying for King Seongdeok to be reborn in the Pure Land.

The Bell of King Seongdeok aka the Bell of Emille (National Treasure No. 29) - Source

Celestial Nymphs Depicted in Temple Compounds Praise the Buddhas Who Live in the Buddha Realm

Although mostly found as decorative design on temple bells, celestial nymphs are also found on the ceilings, main altars and canopies of Dharma halls, and on stone lanterns, monks’ stupas and decorative paintings on the walls of Dharma halls. On the underside of canopies placed above Buddha statues we also see various carved designs of dragons, flames, precious jewels and phoenixes. Surrounding the canopies are celestial nymphs seeming to emerge from the ceiling. These dazzling sculptures give a dramatic effect to the inner space of Buddha halls. Let us find out more about the celestial nymphs adorning these places.

Celestial nymphs are divided into three types: those that play instruments, those that fly and those that make offerings. 

Instrument-playing celestials play various instruments; flying celestials are either descending from heaven or flying horizontally; those making offerings to the Buddha are holding lotuses or incense burners. Temple bells from the 8th century typically feature instrument-playing celestials sitting lightly on clouds with their robes fluttering upward in graceful curves. Temple bells from the late 8th century and 9th century typically feature celestials making offerings while kneeling on lotus pedestals or instrument-playing celestials. In addition to temple bells, celestial nymphs are also found on Dharma halls, pagodas and monks’ stupas. Some noteworthy celestial nymphs adorning Dharma halls are found: on the altar of the Main Buddha Hall at Beomeosa Temple in Busan; on the ceiling of the Main Buddha Hall at Yongjusa Temple in Hwaseong; and those emerging from the ceiling of the Main Buddha Hall of Songgwangsa Temple in Wanju. In the Main Buddha Hall of Yongjusa, celestial nymphs are depicted flying through the air.

Celestial nymphs on the canopy of the Main Buddha Hall at Yongjusa Temple in Hwaseong. With one leg bent back and the other stretched out, two nymphs fly over the heads of Buddha statues, their robes fluttering.

A celestial nymph, adorning the canopy of the Pure Land Hall at Hwa-amsa Temple in Wanju,
flies in dynamic fashion holding a flower in her hand. 

On the ceiling, two celestial nymphs are depicted flying over the heads of Buddha statues and surrounded by flying phoenixes and floating wish fulfilling-gems, symbols of auspicious energy. With one leg bent back and the other stretched out, their postures suggest movement while their robes and arm bands flying upward evoke dramatically the sense of flight. The luxurious flowers adorning their robes and arm bands symbolize devout faith to the Buddha. The whole scene depicts an aesthetically beautiful fantasy or dream. 

The celestial nymphs on the Main Buddha Hall of Yongjusa Temple, though small in size, exude magical power that draws onlookers into the Buddha realm. The stone lantern in front of Ven. Na-ong’s (aka Boje Jonja) stupa at Silleuksa Temple in Yeoju features outstanding bas-relief images of celestial nymphs. On each plane of the octagonal lantern chamber, carved from agalmatolite, an arch-shaped window is cut, and the rest of the plane features elaborate inscription of celestial nymphs and dragons. The face of one celestial nymph holding a lotus bud is damaged, but her graceful body and softly fluttering robes make it easy to imagine her in flight. Her voluptuous body entwined in thin, soft cloth is captivating to the point that we can almost feel her bodily warmth. 

Other noteworthy depictions of celestial nymphs are: those inscribed under the roofstone of National Preceptor Hongbeop’s stupa, retrieved from the Jeongtosa Temple Ruins and now displayed in the National Museum of Korea; Seon Master Cheolgam’s stupa at Ssangbongsa Temple in Hwasun; a monk’s stupa at Godalsa Temple Ruins in Yeoju; the Three-Story Pagoda at Jinjeonsa Temple Ruins in Yangyang. When we see depictions of a celestial nymph, we should look beyond their physical form. With knowledge of their significance, you might feel their free and joyful movements as well as listen to their sublime music resounding through the universe. You might even visualize a scene from the Pure Land with celestial nymphs flying about. Wherever featured in a temple compound, celestial nymphs symbolize our veneration and exultation to the Buddha and the Pure Land.

Celestial Music in Praise of Buddhas’ Merits Instruments Played by Celestial Nymphs

The music played by celestial nymphs expresses the profound joy of Dharma, and the deep sound of liberation that transcends this mundane life confined in a physical body. Playing various wind or string instruments, they lead us to the world of nirvana.

Music has always been closely related to Buddhism as it can effectively praise, adorn and present offerings to the Buddha. Many Buddhist scriptures, including the Lotus Sutra, often feature musical gods like kinnaras and gandharvas, as well as performances of celestial music and music to entertain. However, in principle, temples prohibit music intended to entertain. This includes all music that does not guide one to higher realms of thought; including dancing and singing, as well as gongs and drums. 

The Buddha said, “Singing is not allowed except on two occasions. One is to praise the virtues of great monks and the other is to chant the Impermanence Sutra.” In this way the Buddha warned against music for the sake of one’s enjoyment. A monastic’s foremost task is to cultivate themselves physically and mentally in order to attain enlightenment and to edify sentient beings. “Enchanting music” is an obstacle to Buddhist practice. 

The reason the Buddha allows offerings of music but prohibits singing and dancing is because he has great compassion for people, and those who offer music to the Buddha receive blessings according to their wishes. By integrating passages from various sutras, we can conclude that any singing and dancing should be for the sake of Buddhism’s Three Jewels, and meant to praise the Buddha. Playing music to glorify the Buddha is to achieve great merit and a way to attain the path to Buddhahood.

Instruments for Offerings of Sound 

Celestial nymphs praise the Buddha, play celestial music, sprinkle fragrant flowers and reside in the heavenly realm of abundant joy. That’s why Buddhists believe they can instantly reach the Pure Land of the Buddha if they can even grasp the hem of their fluttering robes. A bipa (a kind of lute) is the instrument most often held by celestial nymphs. Most of the instruments they hold are ancient musical instruments from central Asia. Each nymph seems to be playing alone, but in actuality they are all playing together as an ensemble to express the joy of Dharma. They play blissful music of the Buddhist paradise as described in the scriptures of the Pure Land tradition. 

Of the four heavenly kings that protect temples,
the one in charge of the north holds a bipa (a kind of lute) in his hand.

If you have no idea of what a bipa is, think about the four heavenly kings enshrined in the Gate of Heavenly Kings. One of them is holding a bipa in his hand. Why does this king, the one who protects the BuddhaDharma, holds bipa instead of a sword, arrow, spear or vajra? It is because the bipa enjoyed great popularity in ancient central Asia, where most people lived a nomadic lifestyle and rode horses. As a bipa could be played while riding horseback, many warriors played them. That’s probably why that one king, clad in warrior attire, is holding a bipa. Some noteworthy celestial nymphs playing a bipa are depicted on the pillars of the Main Buddha Hall at Beomeosa Temple in Busan, and on the ceiling of the Main Buddha Hall at Jangnyuksa Temple in Yeongdeok. 

Flute-playing celestial nymphs are inscribed
on the main altar at Gwallyongsa Temple in Changnyeong.

Other instruments used to make offerings of music are the piri (a kind of flute), haegeum (a string instrument resembling a fiddle), janggu (hourglass-shaped drum), saenghwang and bara (spherical hand drum). Most of these are depicted in the Main Buddha Hall of Naesosa Temple in Buan. Every instrument depicted on the ceiling has fluttering robes dangling from it. Beautiful celestial nymphs are also inscribed on the main altar of Gwallyongsa Temple in Changnyeong.

Celestial Nymphs Playing Instruments and Dancing 

Buddhism says we can attain Buddhahood by praising and presenting offerings to the Buddha. In Buddhist art, offerings of music are done by either celestial nymphs or ordinary musicians dancing and playing music. Most human musicians have either the features of heavenly beings or bodhisattvas with haloes, or ordinary people in colorful attire and round hats. Celestial nymphs playing instruments are often depicted on the ceilings of Buddha halls, on pagodas enshrined with Buddha’s cremains, on sarira utensils, and on the platform of an eminent monk’s stupa. 

The nymphs on the ceiling of the Main Buddha Hall at Songgwangsa Temple in Wanju are featured in various scenes playing instruments or dancing. Also seen are traditional Korean elements such as some dance movements in the style of the mask dance and in a woman playing the daegeum (a kind of flute) and wearing a shaman’s hat decorated with a feather. At Silleuksa Temple in Jecheon two symmetrically positioned celestial nymphs are depicted, a style hinting at Chinese influence. 

The stupa for Jijeung Daesa at Bongamsa Temple in Mungyeong features celestial nymphs kneeling with joined palms, as well as others playing various instruments. Some outstanding depictions of celestial nymphs inscribed on stone pagodas include: instrument-playing nymphs on the three-story stone pagoda at Baekjangam Hermitage (affiliated with Silsangsa Temple in Namwon) and the Four-Lion-Three-Story Stone Pagoda at Hwaeomsa Temple. The celestial nymphs inscribed on the base of the Four-Lion-Three-Story Stone Pagoda at Hwaeomsa Temple are meant to offer praise to the Buddha’s sarira which are enshrined within. As can be seen, celestial nymphs play various instruments, dance and sing to praise the Buddha and present offerings of music to the Buddha realm. 

Taepyeongseogok: King Jeongjo Hosts a Banquet (Performance)

King Jeongjo, son of Crown Prince Sado, hosts a great feast in the name of his father and for his mother's 60th birthday at Hwaseong Fortress, 33 kilometers south, and a huge endeavor to reach in the formal royal processional. The National Gugak Center hosts the performance at the Yeakdang: Taepyeongseogok: King Jeongjo Hosts a Feast for Citizens in the Name of His Father.

King Jeongjo and "The Music of Great Peace"

Scholar-sovereign King Jeongjo's celebrated visit to Hwaseong Fortress

King Jeongjo (r. 1776-1800) was the sovereign at the forefront of both scholarship and politics in the Joseon Dynasty of the late 18th century. With his deep knowledge of musicology surpassing that of other Joseon Dynasty kings, he wrote music manuscripts, while, early in his reign he founded Gyujanggak, which functioned as the royal library and a political and academic center that led the Joseon Dynasty to its heyday of culture. The center was also in charge of retraining elite government officials. King Jeongjo presented musical instruments to the center in an action signaling that bureaucrats should know music well. He engaged in a large-scale literary compilation project and wrote scholarly manuscripts demonstrating the nation's interest in literature as well. In addition, aware of their significance, he strove to modify and improve the national rites.

In 1795 (the 19th year of King Jeongjo's reign), his mother, Lady Hyegyeong, reached her sixtieth birthday, as would have King Jeongjo's father, the Crown Prince Sado known for his tragic death. King Jeongjo planned to visit the newly-constructed Hwaseong Fortress with his mother in order to celebrate her birthday there. An expression of filial piety toward his mother on one hand, on the other hand, the renowned visit also served to parade the King's achievements in order to provide impetus to political reform. The dates for the eight-day journey from February 9-16, 1795 in the lunar calendar were selected in order to avoid the busy farming season of June in which Lady Hyegyeong's actual birthday fell.

Offering jinchan, a court banquet, at Bongsudang on the fifth day of the celebrated trip to Hwaseong Fortress

The most significant event of the eight days was Lady Hyegyeong's 60th birthday celebration that took place at Bongsudang on the fifth day of the journey (the third day at Hwaseong Fortress) beginning at 8:45am on February 13, 1795 in the lunar calendar. The banquet featured the offering of a cup of liquor seven times to the guest of honor. King Jeongjo offered the first cup of liquor to Lady Hyegyeong, and then he received a cup of liquor from his mother. After that, key invited figures took turns offering the cup of liquor to the Lady. When each cup of liquor was offered, various court dances were performed accompanied by music. In total, fifteen kinds of court dances were presented: Heongseondo, Geumcheok, Sumyeongmyeong, Hahwangeun, Pogurak, Mugo, Abak, Hyangbal, Hakmu, Yeonhwadaemu, Suyeongjang, Cheoyongmu, Geommu, and Seonyurak.

The performances included various dances descended from the Goryeo Dynasty as well as dances newly created during the Joseon Dynasty, for example, Geommu (the Sword Dance) and Seonyurak (the Boating Dance). A temporary stage was constructed to provide expanded performance space at Bongsudang. Heonseondo (Offering the Heavenly Peach) which depicts the offering of seondo, the fruit of perennial youth and longevity, which emerges once in three thousand years, was the first dance performed. In it, King Jeongjo's heartfelt wish for his mother's longevity is well-expressed.

If you look closely, you can even see the "cranes" that performed in the Crane Dance.

Order of the ceremony

Chapter 1: Prepare the opening of a new age

Chabi: Preparing the feast

45 minutes before the beginning of the ceremony, female officers, female butlers, and female staff in charge of Jeongjae (royal court dance) stand by and install musical instruments. 30 minutes before, royal families, concubines and high officials are ushered by court ladies into the banquet hall. At 15 minutes before, at the first drum beat a court lady reports to King that the feast is ready to begin. At the next drum beat, all the guests move to the place where they bow, escorted in by court ladies.

Chapter 2: Jeongjo and Lady Hyegyeong take the first step toward reconciliation

Siyeon: Starting the feast

At the third drum beat, Jeongjo enters. In a minute Lady Hyegyeong enters and takes a seat. At the solemn announcement by the master of ceremony, royal and noble ladies bow to Lady Hyegyeong twice, and then Jeongjo and his subjects bow twice. 

Two female officers present Lady Heygyeong with a list of food, a scarf and flowers, while the other two female officers are sprinkling flowers. Two female singers enter, and stand on the east and west sides of the hall respectively. They sing for Lady Hyegyeong a celebratory song "Jangrakjang, song of happy longevity" composed by Jeongjo himself. The feast now begins.

Chapter 3: The living (Lady Hyegyeong) and the dead (Crown Prince Sado) pray for the reconciliation of all people

Chugwon: Praying for longevity

Jeongjo offers liquor and submits a written gratitude praising the virtue and wishing the longevity of his mother Lady Hyegyeong. It is read aloud by a court lady, Jeon-un. After the reading is finished, everybody hails three times, "May the queen mother live a thousand years."

Chapter 4: In exuberance, Lady Hyegyeong takes the cup that Jeongjo is offering

Jinjak: Offering liquor with the most respectful manners

Offering cups of liquor to Lady Heygyeong according the royal ranks is not just a to offer liquor but a courtesy to wish her good health and longevity. 

The first cup by Jeongjo, the 22nd King of Joseon, son of the late Crown Prince Sado and Lady Hyegyeong 

The second cup by the eldest daughter Princess Cheongyeon and second daughter Princess Cheonseon. Princess Cheongyeon (1754 - 1821) is from the royal family of Joseon, the eldest daughter between Honorary King Jangjo (Crown Prince Sado) and Queen Heongyeong (Lady Hyegyeong). She was a duchess in her living time, honored as a princess later by Emperor Gojong. Princess Cheongseon, second daughter of Lady Hyegyeong, was also a duchess in her living time and honored to be a princess in 1899. 

The third cup by Daughter-in-law of Lady Hyegyeong. Lee, wife of Hong Naksin, who was a younger brother of Lady Hyegyeong. 

The fourth cup by Duke Kim Giseong, first son-in-law. He was ordained Duke Gwangeunbuwi after marrying Duchess Cheongyeon. 

The fifth cup by Hong Naksin, younger brother of Lady Hyegyeong and brother-in-law of Crown Prince Sado. Jeongjo gave the brothers of Naksin miliary poisitions to take care of Lady Hyegyeong.

Chapter 5: Announcing new beginning at the end of the feast of all citizens

Payeon: Ending the feast

To keep the excitement of the feast until the last minute, a female singer sings "Gwanhwajang, song of admiring glory." afterwards all the female dancers come out hauling a boat named Chaeseon and dances to the boating music "Seonyurak, joy of boating: singing "Eobusa, song of fishermen." 

Lady Hyegyeong and royal family members exit and the feast Bongsudangjinchan officially ends. But Jeongjo stays and entertains himself with his subjects, praising that the feast was "the happiest occasion in a thousand years". He tells his subjects that "10 years later I will pay respect again to Hyeonryungwon, the mausoleum of my father and hold a banquet to celebrate my mother's 70th birthday. So preserve all the apparatuses used today."

Lady Hyegyeong's 60th birthday celebration on the state of the National Gugak Center in 2018

The reenactment of Lady Hyegyeong's birthday celebration premiered in April 2001 as a performance for the 50th anniversary commemoration of the opening of the National Gugak Center. It has been performed several times onstage since then, to growing popularity. In 2018, the production will be the year-end performance presented by the National Gugak Center.

The faithfully-staged reconstruction of the court banquet for Lady Hyegyeong at Bongsudang in 1795--which was developed with the support of historical research for its premiere by the National Gugak Center--is a successful example of the recreation of a royal ceremony practiced 223 years ago. It was made possible thanks to the written document entitled Wonhaengeulmyojeongniuigwe. This year's performance includes the offering of a cup of liquor five times in total. Stage settings, video images, the arrangement of characters, and the organization of court dances for each liquor offering differ somewhat from those in previous years.

First Recorded Music in Korea

Lecturer: Jihoon Suk
Date: Tuesday, January 23, 2018 - 7:30pm to 9:00pm
Venue: Second floor Residents’ Lounge, Somerset Palace, Gwanghwamun
(near Anguk Station, across street from Japanese Embassy)

Hosting organization: Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch

Write-up and picture from the www.raskb.com email concerning this event

In the first decade of the 20th century, the newly-established record industries in North America and Europe were eager to expand their market to all over the world. Starting in 1902, the London-based Gramophone and Typewriter (G&T) company began a series of recording sessions in non-Western countries, usually referred to as "recording expeditions", to record music and other types of performing arts for potential customers in the non-Western world. 

During these recording expeditions, there were always "intermediaries" in the area, who, not only acted as "talent scouts" to find performers willing to make recordings, but also acted as sales agents for the recording companies. Korea was no exception in the eyes of the executives of the G&T company. The 101 sides of Korean recordings recorded by the company (but eventually produced by its American affiliate, Victor Talking Machine Co.) in 1906, were the direct results of their third major recording expedition to Asia. 

The musical importance of these 1906 Korean recordings cannot be stressed enough, as they provide rich resources for studying the earliest attainable forms of Korean pre-modern music. Their production history also reveals an interesting dynamic between the Western record companies and the Korean public, which paralleled the socio-economic effects and outcomes of the coming of the "West" to the "East" at the turn of the 20th century. (It even reveals a surprising connection with the RAS!) 

This lecture will include a demonstration of early sound recording technologies, both playback and recording technologies using period equipment. It will also include several sound clips of several extant 1906 Victor Korean recordings. 

_________________________________________________________

Jihoon Suk received a BA and MA in Korean modern history from Yonsei University. While he calls himself a "generalist" in terms of his knowledge on Korean history, his primary research focuses on the roles of the modern non-textual media (sound recordings, films, and photographs), as it was one of the most crucial factors shaping the modern perception of Korean "traditional culture" or "national culture" as we see today. 

He is also an avid collector of vintage sound recordings, which led to his involvement with the Korean 78rpm Discography Project and Archive (http://www.78archive.co.kr), a near-complete online database of Korean commercial records issued between 1907 and 1945. He also has been working with various museums and archives in Korea and around the world, including the Independence Hall Museum of Korea, the Korean Film Archive, the National Gugak Center, U.S. Library of Congress, The New York Public Library, and the University of Hawaii-Manoa.

Published in Korea Times, Jan 17 (W), Foreign Column, "Tracing Korea's earliest recorded music"

Korea & UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage

Korea takes great pride in being recognized by UNESCO for its cultural heritage. As for right now, 1 January 2018, the UNESCO World Heritage Center lists South Korea as having 11 world heritage sites, 1 natural heritage site, and 16 more on the tentative list.

As for UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in South Korea, at present there are 19 elements inscribed, one classified as ongoing (2018), and 25 on the backlog nomination list. 

19 Intangible Cultural Heritage elements inscribed:

2016: Culture of Jeju Haenyeo (women divers)
2016: Falconry, a living human heritage
2015: Tugging rituals and games
2014: Nongak, community band music, dance and rituals in the Republic of Korea
2013: Kimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea
2012: Arirang, lyrical folk song in the Republic of Korea
2011: Jultagi, tightrope walking
2011: Taekkyeon, a traditional Korean martial art
2011: Weaving of Mosi (fine ramie) in the Hansan region
2010: Gagok, lyric song cycles accompanied by an orchestra
2010: Daemokjang, traditional wooden architecture
2009: Namsadang Nori
2009: Yeongsanjae
2009: Jeju Chilmeoridang Yeongdeunggut
2009: Ganggangsullae
2009: Cheoyongmu
2008: Royal ancestral ritual in the Jongmyo shrine and its music
2008: Pansori epic chant
2008: Gangneung Danoje festival

Jongmyo Jerye & Jeryeak ... royal ancestral ritual in the Jonmyo shrine and its music

Pansori epic chant ... with a story-telling singer and a drummer
perhaps this pansori singer is singing the famous Arirang, another intangible heritage

One on-going nomination (not inscribed so no links as yet)

2018: Ssireum, traditional wrestling in the Republic of Korea

25 backlogged nominations (not inscribed so no links as yet)

2013: Yeondeunghoe, lighting lantern festival
2012: Korea's programme for documenting intangible cultural heritage (ART18)
2012: Music of Daegeum and Piri, traditional Korean wind instruments
2012: Music of Gayageum, a traditional Korean string instrument
2012: Craftsmanship of Gat, men's horsehair hats
2010: Hakyeonhwadae-hapseolmu, the crane and lotus flower dance
2010: Hahoe Byeolsingut Tallori, mask dance drama of Hahoe
2010: Gyeonggi-do Dodanggut, tutelary rite of Gyeonggi province
2010: Bawijeol village funeral rehearsal play
2010: Naju Saetgolnai, cotton weaving of Naju
2010: Gasa, narrative songs
2010: Sagijang, ceramics
2010: Seokjang, stonework
2010: Jasujang, embroidery
2010: Chiljang, lacquer craft
2010: Gakjajang, calligraphic engraving
2010: Mokjogakjang, wood sculpture
2010: Yundojang, making geomantic compasses
2010: Wanchojang, sedge work
2010: Yeomsaekjang, dyeing with indigo
2010: Somokjang, wooden furniture construction
2010: Seonjajang
2010: Munbaeju, Munbae liquor
2010: Myeoncheon Dugyeonju, Dugyeonju liquor of Myeoncheon
2010: Gyeongju Gyodong Beopju, Beopju liquor of Gyodong, Gyeongju

a musician wearing a gat (horse-hair hat) playing the gayageum, a zither-like instrument

Korean Sports, a History Written in Sweat

Quarterly the National Museum of Korean Contemporary History hosts a private evening tour for members and friends of members of the Royal Asiatic Society (www.raskb.com). And tonight they hosted their 10th private tour for the RAS; this temporary exhibition was on the history of Korean sports, a topic most relevant as in less than two months the 2018 Winter Olympics kicks off Pyeongchang. The outline of the exhibition is as follows:

PROLOGUE - KOREAN SPORTS BEFORE THE OPENING

From ancient times our nation had a unique sports culture. There were physical activities with music and dancing at religious rituals, such as Buyeo's younggo, Goguryeo's dongnaeng, and Dongye's mucheon, and there were activities for physical training related to martial arts, such as archery, riding, ssireum, soobahk, and chajeon nori. Other various traditional folk games also improved the physical strength and the cooperative spirit of the Korean people.  

hwalinsimbang

hunters on sleds

THE BEGINNING OF MODERN SPORTS IN KOREA

In the late 19th century, Joseon opened its doors to the world amid the plunder of imperialist powers. It was then that modern sports was introduced, also bringing change to the concept of the body. The courts of Joseon and the Korean Empire sought to build up the physical strength and and the hearts of the people by encouraging physical education. Many laws and institutions were established, and "Physical Education" was designated as a school subject.

Physical education during the colonial period took on a different mission -- as a tool for the restoration of national sovereignty. The colonial situation caused many limitations for sports activities of Korean, but with the change in Japanese colonial policies to show a little more flexibility after the March 1st Movement, there was some progress in sports for the Korean people, such as the founding of the Joseon Sports Association in 1920. 

In a situation in which Japanese imperialists oppression continued to intensify, sports contributed to the health of the Korean people, and Korean leaders encouraged sports, believing it would be able to contribute to the restoration of Joseon's national sovereignty. Sports gave courage and strength to a people that had lost their country.

1. Change in the concept of the body

In the traditional concept of the body in Joseon, there was the idea of eating well to maintain good balance and pursue longevity, but there was no concept of actively exercising the body to improve health. The traditional training of the body, in comparison to modern-day sports, was more like a spiritual exercise, in a sphere separate from physical recreation activities. Also, the concept of the body in traditional medicine or philosophy held the organismic perspective, which was greatly different from the Western mechanistic view of the body that was actively being introduced in the late 19th century.

2. Change in the Perception of Sports and the Introduction of Western Sports

After the opening of ports, the perception of physical education in Korea changed. In his Royal Edict on Education, King Gojong emphasized the importance of "intelligence, virtue, and physical fitness," which was a new kind of educational philosophy, placing the same level of importance on physical well-being as on intelligence or virtue. In many newly-established schools, modern sports were introduced. In each school, new subjects such as gymnastics were taught, field days were held, and many different sports activities were encouraged. Since the Hwangseong Young Men's Christian Association (today's YMCA) was founded in 1903, sports competitions were held. The Korean Sports Club, the first private sports organization to be created in Korea, often held competitions both inside and outside the organization, contributing greatly to the expansion of interest in sports.

3. The Establishment of the Joseon Sports Association and Sports Activities

In 1910, when the Korean Empire was annexed by Japan, sports activities run by schools and private organizations became limited. However, after the March 1st Movement, with Japanese colonizers implementing the so-called cultural rule, there were movements to establish sports organizations, started mainly by Koreans who had studied in Japan, and such movements bore fruit on July 13th, 1920, when the Joseon Sports Association was founded. The Joseon Sports Association hosted and supported many different sports events, such as the 1st Joseon Baseball Competition. A variety of sports games were spread, professional athletes appeared, and more people began to be interested in sports.

4. Korean Sportspeople during the Colonial Period

Many Joseon intellectuals and independence activities during the Japanese colonial period considered sports as a way to increase the power of the Korean people. Thanks to the Korean athletes who performed impressively even in competition with Japanese players, the people of Joseon could maintain their hope for independence. Korean athletes who had to participate as Japanese representatives ran with the spirit of Joseon in their hearts although the Japanese flag was on their chests.

1920 in Jeonju

THE TRANSITION AND TAKEOFF OF KOREAN SPORTS

On August 15th, 1945, with the joy of independence, Korean sports also began again. Sportspeople reestablished the Joseon Sports Association, and the Joseon Olympic Committee joined the International Olympic Committee. Korean athletes could finally compete in a competition under the nationality of "Korea" in the 1948 London Olympic Games.

After gaining independence, the Republic of Korea went through many political upheavals. Having emerged from the May 16 Coup in 1961 and continuing until 1979, the Park Chung-hee government developed state-led elite sports through sports policies. The Fifth Republic, which had emerged with a new military regime taking power, made many contributions to the sports sector by giving birth to professional sports and hosting the 1986 Asian Games and the 1988 Olympic Games, but there was also the aspect of using sports to disperse the people's burning desire for democracy.

1. Korean Sports after Independence

Right after independence, the political situation was in disarray, with the conflict between left and right ideologies. Amidst this situation, sportspeople were very active, reestablishing the Joseon Sports Association, organizing the Joseon Athletics Comrade Society, and hosting the "National Athletic Competition in Celebration of Liberation." During this period, political confusion and conflict caused some sports personalities to meet a tragic death, shocking people in the sports sector. Meanwhile, the Joseon Olympic Committee joined the International Olympic Committee, and in the 1948 London Olympic Games, a Korean delegation was sent to represent "Korea." Kim Seong-jip in weightlifting and Han Soo-am in boxing each won a bronze medal, the first Olympic medals in Korean history.

Suh Yun-bok wins the Boston Marathon (1947)

2. State-led Sports Promotion

In June 1950, the sound of gunfire rang across the Korean Peninsula. The destruction brought by the Korean War caused much suffering to sports people as well. However, while still in war, in 1952, the Republic of Korea participated in the Olympic Games held in Helsinki, Finland, and gave hope and courage to the Korean people who were amid ruins by winning two bronze medals. From the 1960s, sports developed with full support from the state. A large amount of the government budget was allocated to foster sports, and the Taereung National Training Centre was built for the development of elite sports. Sports activities greatly increased in quantity and quality, as teams for different sports were organized and various competitions were held.

President Park Chung-hee visiting the Taereung Training Center (1976)

3. Sports Activities and Sportspeople in the 1960s and 1970s

Korean sports domestically ensured its internal stability and internationally made many good records in overseas competitions. The Korea Sports Council became an overarching organization of the Korean sports sector, as the Korean Olympic Committee and Korea School Sports Association were integrated into it in 1968. The National Athletic Competition gained prominence in the 1960s, The National Athletic Competition gained prominence in the 1960s. Lee Sang-baek and Jang Gi-young were elected as members of the International sports sector. In the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games, Yang Jung-mo in wrestling won the first Olympic gold medal for Korea.

Taereung national skating rink (1971)

4. The Beginning of Professional Sports and Athletes

In the early 1980s, professional leagues emerged in sports such as baseball and football. Baseball was already popular due to the high school, vocational baseball boom and the winning of the World Baseball Championship Series (Amateur World Series), but it greatly expanded its influence after professional baseball emerged in 1982. In 1983, professional football and professional ssireum (Korean traditional wrestling), and from the 1990s, professional basketball and professional volleyball emerged. Such efforts allowed Korean sports players in various sports to enhance their performance.

ssireum wrestler Lee Man-ki, Jangchung Stadium (1984)

THE GLOBALIZATION OF KOREAN SPORTS

In the late 1980s, having achieved the results of procedural democracy, Korea also gained much energy in the sports sector. Hosting the 24th Summer Olympic Games in Seoul 1988, Korea showed its national strength and progress to the world.

Afterwards, Korean sports developed in many aspects, but the hosting of international competitions is most noticeable. After the Summer Olympic Games in 1988, Korean also hosted the 2002 Korean-Japan World Cup and the 2011 Daegu World Championships in Athletics. By hosting the 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games, Korea has achieved a grand slam in hosting the international competitions.

Hosting such events have developed national strength in sports, improved Korean athletes' performance, and increased the level of public interest in sports and better conditions for everyday sports.

1. Hosting the Asian Games and the Seoul Olympic Games

The 1986 Asian Games and the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games revealed the economic growth and impressive development of sports in Korea. Especially in the Seoul Olympic Games, the highest number of countries participated in the history of the Games; Korea displayed mature administrative capacity, successfully hosting the event, and also finished 4th in overall rankings. The images of Korea introduced overseas during the Olympic Games also became a chance to present how much growth Korea had seen in general.

official music record "Hand in Hand" from the 24th Olympic Games in Seoul (1982)

official Report of the 24th Olympic Games in Seoul (1988)

2. Achieving the Grand Slam in Hosting International Competitions

Having gained confidence from the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games in hosting international sports events, Korea went on to hold the 2002 Korea-Japan World Cup and the 2011 Daegu World Championships in Athletics, and is hosting the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games. The 2002 Korea-Japan World Cup was the first time in history that the World Cup was co-hosted by two countries, and it ended in success. Korea also performed well in the World Cup, reaching the semi-finals, and also surprised the world with its passionate, heated street cheering. In the 2011 Daegu World Championships in Athletics, however, public apathy towards the event and the low performance of Korean athletes indicated the challenges that needed to be overcome in the future.

Koreans wearing red and taking to the streets during the country-wide
(even world-wide wherever Koreans could gather) during the 2002 World Cup

3. Korean Athletes Active Overseas

There have been Korean sports stars in each generation who played remarkably well overseas, making Korea known to the world and giving great joy to the Korean people. In the 1960s and 1970s, when Korea's national power was relatively weak and the people had low confidence, the small number of athletes who were active overseas gave refreshing joy to the people. In the 1990s, many more Korean athletes began to perform well abroad, encouraging the Korean people who were in despair due to the IMF crisis.

4. Sportspeople Take on the Winter Olympic Games

The first time Korean athletes participated in the Winter Olympic Games was in the 5th Winter Olympic Games held in 1948 in St. Moritz, Switzerland. Since then, Korea has performed quite well in international winter sports competitions, winning its first medal at the 1992 Albertville Winter Olympic Games. Korea Produced many talented players especially in short track speed skating, achieving high ranking in the Winter Olympic Games. Korea has also performed well in other events such as speed skating and figure skating, making itself known worldwide as a country strong in winter sports.

All picture and text credit goes to the organization 

of the National Museum of Korean Contemporary History. 

Haenyeo Museum, Jeju

The English version of the travel booklet Jeju Haenyeo published November 2015 by Haenyeo Museum explains about the traditional diving women of Jeju Island, the haenyeo, or literally the "sea women". Excerpts from the booklet follow:

Haenyeo Museum

Haenyeo, also called jamnyeo, the women divers, only exist in Jeju Island and Japan. The terms refers to them as women who gather seaweed, abalone, or other shellfish from the sea. Because of the very uniqueness of this diving profession, they have been the focus of much attention from around the world.

Haenyeo are the symbol of Jeju women as they were the bulwark of Jeju's economy, going on long expeditions to Japan as well as other parts of Korea. As strong tenacious hold on life and pioneering spirit is characteristic of the haenyeo. 

It is believed that fishermen harvested abalone during the Joseon Dynasty. In a Jeju Topography written by Lee Gun in 1629, it is recorded that haenyeo harvested abalone. Records of haenyeo are also found in bibliographic data such as the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, Jiyoungrok, written by Lee Ik Tae, and Jonjaejeonseo by We Baek Gue.

Jeju's hanyeo also had a significant role in leading the anti-Japanese movement, fighting for their rights against the Japanese exploitation as one of the largest such movements nationwide.

It is our sincerest hope to build a museum on this historic site and develop a 21st century cultural arts mecca so that we can pass on and preserve Jeju's haenyeo culture, which has been acknowledged as a world heritage asset.

Jeju Haenyeo

Jeju haenyeo make their living by harvesting abalone, conch, sea cucumber, and hijiki from the ocean. The women are called jamsu, jamnyeo and jamsu [sic] in Jeju. Their lives are an integral part of the history of Jeju. The job they do in the sea is call muljil.

Diving seems to have begun before the period of the Three States, judging from the fact that Jeju had a record of contributing pearls to the king. It is believed that fishermen harvested abalone and presented them during Joseon Dynasty. Jeju Topography written by Lee Gun in 1629 recorded that haenyeo harvested abalones. The records of haenyeo are recorded on bibliographic data such as the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, Jiyoungrok written by Lee Ik Tae, and Jonjaejeonseo by We Baek Gue.

Jeju women are as diligent as men and learn early how to swim. They begin swimming at age 7-8 and were very skillful in muljil by age 18, and superior haenyeo by age 35. They are considered rare women and attract a lot of attention from around the world.

Muljil (Diving) Skill

Muljil skill is acquired by lengthy training and experience. Haenyeo near the ocean learned how to swim and dive in the shallow area by age 15. Physical conditions such as lung capacity, ability to withstand pressure, and capacity to adjust to cold water are needed. Cool nerves are also necessary when swimming near and encountering big fish. Jeju haenyeo have extended their skill and wisdom by learning the effective use of physical strength and knowledge of the ocean from the seniors at the Bulteok.

Sumbisori

Sumbisori is the whistling sound haenyeo make when they surface. It sounds like a "hoowi hoowi" sound when they inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide created when submerged for 1-2 minutes. Sumbisori provides fresh air to haenyeo and enables them to work extended periods of time with only short rest periods.

Knowledge about Nature

Knowledge of nature encompasses knowledge of the ocean and tides, wind, harvested things and experience. Haenyeo are able to recognize sea geography, changing tidal currents, and habitats of marine life. They can estimate growing process of seasonal marine life and harvest them accordingly. For example, the best time to harvest agar-agar is different year by year. They don't harvest abalone and conches during spawning season. The haenyeo's vast experience and accumulated knowledge of the marine ecosystem have been handed down from generation to generation.

Traditional Outfits

Traditional outfits (mulot) are composed of three pieces: mulsojungi (pants), muljeoksam (jacket) and mulsugun (typing hair). Mulsojungi, which is made of cotton, is designed for minimizing the water resistance to work well under the sea. It has a side opening for haenyeo to change clothes without showing their bodies. The distribution of rubber diving suits has greatly increased haenyeo's income since being used in the early part of 1970.

Diving Equipment

Diving equipment includes swimming googles, tewak mangsari, bitchang and kakuri. The non-traditional swimming goggles have been used since the 19th century, while the other pieces of equipment were modified with modern development. 

• the tewak can be clasped to the chest as a floating devise while swimming
• the mangsari can be hung on the tewak for storing harvested sea products
• the bitchang, a metal tool, is used to pick up abalones attached to rocks
• the kakuri, considered the most useful to divers, is for picking up sea products between rocks, turn rocks over, pull their bodies by attaching the tool to a rock and pulling

Jeju designated 15 items comprising the swimming suits and diving apparatus as Folk Material, No. 10.

Bulteok

Bulteok is a place where hanyeo change clothes and prepare for diving or rest between dives. The bulteok surrounded with stones arranged in a circle has a bonfire in the center for warming the haenyeo, and is a place where haenyeo can exchange information and skills on diving, fishing grounds and consolidate their ideas. There used to be 3-4 bulteok in each village, depending on the size of the village. Currently only 70 bulteok exist throughout Jeju as the bulteok have been replaced by modern dressing rooms equipped with hot and cold water facilities since 1985.

Chulga Haenyeo

Haenyeo who have left Jeju for foreign countries or moved to the mainland to areas like  Gyeongsangnam-do, Jeolla-do and Chungcheong-do are called chulga haenyeo. The songs which haenyeo used to sing, pulling oars while moving to the islands or distant sea are in general called haenyeo songs. The songs expressed the emotions and cognition of the haenyeo community which still exists today and were designated as Intangible Cultural Asset No. 1 by Jeju-do in 1971.

Faith

Haesindang (shrine) situated beside the sea is a ritual place for haenyeo to pray for their safety and abundance. Jamsugut and yowanggut are dances performed for safety and abundance. Jamsugut is performed on the 8th of March (lunar calendar) in Dongkimnyongri and is a symbolic ritual and festival for the haenyeo community. The cost of the dance is shared by the haenyeo. The dance, illustrates unity of life and work while the ritual (yowangmaji) calls the Dragon King and prays for abundance and safety. Similarly, sidream is a homeopathic magical ritual to plant seeds into the sea symbolic of harvesting an abundance of abalone, conch, agar-agar and hijiki.

Contribution to and Participation in the Common Good for the Community

Jeju haenyeo helped to pave the main road and build a school by donating part of their income. All proceeds from the fixed area of "ljangbadang" [sic] went to the head of the village who worked for the village official. There used to be "school badang" which supplied school support fees for elementary school.

When the school in Onpyeong, Sungsaneup burnt down in 1950, haenyeo contributed funds raised by selling seaweed from "school badang" and rebuilt the school from 1951 - 1958. The school's supporting association erected a commemorative monument in 1961 to pay tribute to haenyeo's charitable deeds.

Legend of the Haenyeo

There used to be a haenyeo living in Mosulpo, a haenyeo who didn't suffer from smallpox. She encountered a sea turtle on dry land along the road in Geumropo. Feeling pity for it, she took it to the sea. As it swam farther and farther into the sea, it conveyed its thankfulness.

Picking up abalones in Yongduam, she ran into an old man while jewels were shining. He said, "I'm very grateful for your kindness. You have saved my son." Handing a piece of flower to her, he said, "This flower will protect you from smallpox." She later found out the flower was from the black huckleberry plant. And her whole life she never suffered from smallpox.

"Tamnajichobon" written by Lee Won Cho 1843.

Other comments/points of interest from the museum brochure:

The Jeju Haenyeo Festival (September - October sometime) is the nation's only women-centered maritime festival, which is intended to hand down haenyeo traditional culture. All women divers on Jeju participate, and in the festival are event like:

• a haenyeo muljil (diving) competition
• tewak swimming competition
• tourist programs for experiencing muljil (diving) and bareutjabi (the traditional way of fishing to collect seafood using a torch)

Performance for Tourists (April - November) are arranged. Haenyeo songs which have been designed as Provincial Intangible Cultural Property No.1 are sung sturdily expressing Jeju women's spirit. These songs sung by haenyeo all over the island are in danger of disappearing due to the reduction in the numbers of haenyeo and changes in their work environment. These performances aim to increase awareness at home and abroad of cultural excellence of Jeju women divers and the cultural value of haenyeo tewak dance, haenyeo songs (such as leodosana or myeolchi hurineunsori songs sung when myeolchi are caught) and others. Jeju Haenyeo Museum hosts the Haenyeo Song Festival every year.