Getting to Dokdo

To get to Dokdo, one can either depart Ulleungdo from Jeodong or Sadong. Ferries typically run twice a day in peak season, but frequently get cancelled because of high seas. And even though people board the ferry doesn't mean that they will be able to disembark at Dokdo, because if there are any swells, the water would beat the ferry against the low dock, or it could sweep people off the dock and into the sea. A person wouldn't have a chance of survival if that happened. So if swells are too high, then the ferry will simply circle the island and return to Ulleungdo. According to workers in the Jeodong ticketing office, people disembark onto Dokdo only one in five times. Wikipedia offers different information, "If the swell is greater than 3 to 5 meters, then landing is not possible so on average ferries can only dock about once in every forty days." The day we went to Dokdo and the following day were particularly calm and both morning and afternoon ferries could allow passengers to disembark. Very unusual! In the winter months, December to February, no passenger ferries to Dokdo are in operation.

Aerial shot from the Ulleungdo-Dokdo tourist map

Beyond ticketing but before boarding the ferry is the "last place to buy food and drink" before going to Dokdo, the rock without water. A young girl was soliciting passengers to buy a small, medium, large (W30,000) or extra-large box of snacks for the soldiers on Dokdo, or even a case of water bottles. About 40 soldiers are stationed there on the peak of one of the sharply pointed islets. They live in very cramped quarters and must ration their water and only eat the food provided by the military, which was described as very basic and not much. 

The boxes contain chips, cookies, choco pies, ramen--in short, junk food. Different prices for different sized boxes, but it seemed like a good idea since the soldiers have no entertainment other than their phones and are rather dependent on tourists to bring in their extras as going out and buying something isn't an option. I would rather have taken a box of carrots, cabbage and potatoes or something fresh. Junk food is fine for a treat but not as a staple. Quite a few people bought boxes, and when they were delivered to the island, they were stacked up beside the platform that has a cable lift for hauling up heavy or large items to the soldiers' quarters on the peak. If the ferries come even once every 4-5 days, then those boys in uniform sure get a lot of junk food! But if it can't come for 40 days, wow, that would be awful. To me, giving water is the more practical ideas, but on our ferry, most people who gave a gift had it in junk food form. 

We had a very unusual ride over to Dokdo. The entire ferry was filled with soldiers. We two, a busload of Korean language-study students from Kyunghee University, and a tiny handful of Korean passengers were the only non-military personnel on the ferry. Those soldiers were traveling in uniform (of course) and were there for military tourism. A professional photographer accompanied them and I got the impression this trip was for political reasons--to take lots of pictures to publicize widely for showing Korean strength and military solidarity and to assert Korea's claim that "Dokdo is ours", the Korean slogan universally heard when discussing the island. The controversy between Japan still exists--on which side of the islets Dokdo belongs to. The soldiers, also like us, were only there for the 20-30 minutes or so to walk around, "see" Dokdo, and say that they had been there.

Basically, Dokdo (Dongdo and Seodo, respectively East and West Island) is a pair of rock islets that rear upward to 87.4 meters and have precipitous cliffs. According to the travel brochure, there are 89 outcroppings (why would anyone count or feel that important for a simple tourist map?) The whole island has staggeringly steep cliffs except for the southern side of Dongdo where a small flat beach allowed the building of the ferry port. 

The documented history of Dokdo goes back several centuries, and both Korea and Japan have visited the islet over the centuries. I don't know much about Japan's history but here's a clipping from Visit Korea of Korea's history of Dokdo:

Located 87.4km away from Ulleungdo Island, and formed entirely from volcanic rock, Dokdo is an isolated island off the east coast of Korea bearing a latitude of 37°14' north and a longitude of 131°52' east. Collectively, both Ulleungdo Island and Dokdo once belonged to a country named Usanguk. According to geographical records, Usanguk became part of the Silla Kingdom (57B.C. ~ 935 A.D.) in June of the 13th year that King Jijeung ruled Silla. Isabu (a general and politician of Silla) gained significant strength during this period to overtake Usanguk.  

In the Seongjong Memoir of the Joseon Dynasty, there are passages by Kim Jaju describing Dokdo, which was referred to as Sambongdo at the time. Dokdo was initially called 'Sambongdo', 'Gajido' or 'Usando', but the name was later changed to Dokdo in 1881. The name 'Dokdo' was first used in 1906 by the Headman of Ulleung County Sim Heungtaek. In 1914, Dokdo officially became an administrative district of the Gyeongsangbuk-do.  

After the Japanese Invasion of Korea (the Imjin War) in 1592, Japanese fishermen often came near Ulleungdo and Dokdo. Sukjong Sillok, the Annals of King Suk Jong (1674-1720), records that An Yong-bok went to Japan twice in order to protest against Japanese nationals trespassing into Korean territory. He asked the Japanese authorities to recognize Korea's sovereignty over these islands and to forbid Japanese nationals to sail to Dokdo.  

Dokdo is comprised of two main islands: Dongdo, or East Island which sits 98m above sea level, and Seodo, or West Island, which sits 168m above sea level, together with 36 smaller rock formations. Separating Dongdo and Seodo is the Hyeongjegul Cave, together with Cheonsanggul Cave on Dongdo. Over time, other caves and topographic features of the island formed due to weathering and erosion.

Japan acknowledged the value of Dokdo after the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. Japan unilaterally transferred Dokdo to Shimane Prefecture, Japan and renamed it "Dakesima". Several authorities in Japan have continuously declared their dominion, over the island, which led to diplomatic conflicts between Korea and Japan. Such conflicts have yet to be resolved. 

And interestingly enough, Dokdo to Korea, Takeshima to Japan, is Liancourt to France. That name is derived from the French whaling ship, Le Liancourt, that was wrecked on the islet's rocks in 1849.

Military installations near the top of Dongdo, Dokdo

Chotdae-bawi (Candlestick Rock), and Samhyeongje Bawigul (Three Brother Rocks with Holes)

Passengers are limited to a very limited area. Of course they are not allowed to the military installations on the peak. In fact, only a few officers were allowed to go up. The rest of the soldiers milled around like us, taking selfies, and posed as a group for a few select shots by the camera man.

The professional camera man principally focused on these four soldiers--two men AND two women. They will be representatives of the whole group, probably in fact, represent all of the Korean miitary. While the camera man was getting his posed shots, I was happily getting mine.

The soldiers in camouflage were from the mainland while the tiny handful of soldiers in navy were soldiers stationed on Dokdo. The Dokdo soldiers that I saw were taller than the average Korean. I wonder if there is a height criteria to be sent to this location?

I didn't even know that there were female soldiers mixed in this large group of male soldiers until we got to Dokdo. There were only a tiny few, but like everyone else there, they were enjoying the natural wild topography and the good luck to actually be able to disembark from the ferry.

Haha, gotta get those selfies and take advantage of the wi-fi!

Gathering around Sutdol-bawi (Whetstone Rock)

Getting into formation for the last group picture ... and departure

 

Our very large ferry boat waiting to reload us and haul us all back to Jeodong, Ulleungdo.

The whole area of Dokdo has been designated as a Natural Preservation Zone. Like Ulleungdo, it's rough, jagged and is one of the scenic, very jurassic-looking geoparks of Korea. 

The Jindo Miracle Sea Road Festival

Jindo island located just off the southwest corner of the Korea peninsula is a mystical island of folk art and music, traditional performance and the much celebrated surreal sea road which forms a 2.8 kilometer long pathway to an outer island twice a year. This mysterious walkway roughly 10-40 feet wide has been dubbed the “Korean Moses Miracle” and attracts Koreans and foreigners alike to see the mysterious phenomenon and walk its length.

The four-day Jindo Miracle Sea Road Festival in spring attracts about half of a million visitors every year, making it one of the three top festivals in Korea. The two other most popular festival events are the Mud Festival in July and the king of festivals, the Hwacheon Sancheonea (mountain trout) Ice Festival in January. For all of these, charter tour buses from various cities flow into these otherwise minimally populated areas, filling large pre-designated parking areas. Traveling by private car to any of these places during the festival season is one’s worst nightmare.

This year the Jindo festival opened on a Thursday, April 7, and concluded on Sunday, April 10. And because this year the lowest ebb tide of the Moses Miracle took place on the weekend, tour buses arrived throughout the weekend for people to see this once-a-year celebrated phenomenon. The most popular buses, however, were those that arrived in the early dawn of Saturday, in time for the Fire Torch Walk when thousands of people carry flaming gas-lit torches and walk into the sea on the appearing path that links Jindo to the distant Modo island. For those who missed the iconic Torch Walk, the sea parting occurred again at 18:20 on Saturday and 19:00 on Sunday. A few thousand even got up early Sunday and did the unofficially schedule sea path walk at around 6:40am.

Each of the sea path occurrences lasts about an hour, so if a person does get to Modo island, he or she will probably be stranded there or be forced to hire a local boat to ferry them back to the larger island.

The sea path is steeped in legend and, unlike other legends of long-long ago, the legend of Grandma Ppong and the sea path goes back to a precise date, the year 1480 when a man Son Dong-ji was condemned to exile on Jeju Island. As Son’s ship navigated to Jeju, a furious storm blew and shipwrecked him on the tip of Jindo island at a savage place called Hoedong, literally the “tiger place”, named so because of the numerous striped beasts prowling the area. Son stayed with the villagers and for the next 200 years his descendants lived in Hoedong until the area became so frightening a place to live because of the many tiger attacks that the villagers along with Son’s descendants built rafts and moved to the nearby Modo island.

Unfortunately in the move, a grandmother was left behind. In terror and loneliness Grandmother Ppong prayed to the Dragon King of the sea to be reunited with her family. Finally, in a March night dream the Dragon King appeared and told her the next day a rainbow would appear to guide her to her family. The next day on the rocky shore she prayed again and the rainbow bridge appeared, forming an arching path from Hoedong to Modo island. In her joy she ran along the rainbow path and collapsed into her family’s arms on the other side whereupon she praised the Dragon King for reuniting her and then died from exhaustion.

In filial respect, her family honored her for her tenacious faith in the Dragon King. Many locals still dance, stage shamanic rituals and have other performances to give respects to Grandma Ppong for her strong faith in the Dragon King. Particularly during festival season, the statue of her located at the narrowest expanse between now-Jindo and Modo is draped with ribboned wishes and prayers as she looks earnestly to the distant island. Another statue overlooking the head of the rainbow path is where Grandma Ppong kneels beseechingly while looking toward Modo; a snarling tiger statue is her companion.

Though a legend to some, many Koreans still put faith in the powers of the Dragon King and the faith of Grandma Ppong. Many come to pray for the well-being of family members, for wishes for their children, for prosperity and health. The local Jindo residents have a traditional celebration called Yeongdeungje in which they pray to Grandma Ppong and the Dragon King, their village guardian spirits. Unlike the more publicized Jindo Miracle Sea Road Festival which is only celebrated in spring, Yeongdeungje is held during the spring and fall sea road partings when the road is widest.

The partings are scientifically explained as tidal harmonics. Predictable by the lunar calendar, the phenomenon is controlled by the gravitation pull of the moon along with effects of the rotation and momentum of the earth. From a superstitious point of view, a mystical miracle occurs.

The Jindo sea parting is a family experience. Everyone can participate, and while mom is digging around for lunch, baby is quit dry and content to just be along!

Wearing gumboots and carrying a trowel and a pail or just a bag, Koreans are fully equipped to explore food for lunch: crabs, clams, abalone, stranded octopi, sea tangle and other sea delicacies are all fair game!

photo contribution by Nicola Hayne - adventurers feeling their way along as the tide continues to ebb

The Jindo Miracle Sea Road Festival didn’t stem from the prayers to Grandma Ppong or the Dragon King, but came about by the French ambassador Pierre Landy who was visiting Jindo island in 1975 to learn a bit about, some say the Jindo dogs and others say the local music. Why he actually went there is now unimportant for what he saw, Grandma Ppong’s rainbow bridge, he unintentionally immortalized in a French newspaper when he published his observation as the Korean version of the Moses Miracle and much like the Biblical parting of the Red Sea. After international awareness was raised, other foreigners wanted to witness the parting as well, and so in 1978 the sea parting festival was established.

Western foreign interest increased every year, until in 1996 Tendo Yoshimi, a Japanese pop star, sang the song “A Story of Jindo” describing the enigmatic water parting which ignited Japanese interest in the phenomenon as well, so then hordes of Japanese tourists flocked to Jindo every year.  

The Jindo sea parting miracle is not the only ebb tide sea road in Korea. In fact, about 20 others exist. Somaemuldo, the so-called “lighthouse island” off Geojedo, Gyeongsangnam-do has a rock-strewn path that appears regularly twice a day; then near Incheon a stretch of cement-paved walkway appears to connect Nuesan Island Lighthouse Observatory with the mainland, and nearby on Seonjaedo island a fairy-like meander of golden sand appears to bridge Seonjaedo to the tiny Mokseom island. More exist but none as long or wide as the Jindo phenomenon and none have yet had international exposure on such a grand scale to immortalize them as must-see tourist attractions.

Jindo island in its own right is a tourist attraction. At least five folk heritages have been listed as intangible cultural heritages with UNESCO—the ganggansullae, a circle dance performed by women; the ssitgimgut, a shamanistic ritual soul-cleansing of wandering spirits to resolve their earthly grievances; the Jindo dasiraegi, a performance for consoling people who have lost family members; the deulnorae, a farmer’s song; and samulnori, the play and dance to the beat of four percussion instruments. Two other folk heritages are listed by the provincial government as intangible cultural assets—the Jindo buknori, a traditional drum play with two sticks, and manga, the local funeral dirges. It can be said that much music and performance claims Jindo as their birthplace. And thus the Jindo saying, “When in Jindo, beware of showing your musical abilities” because the musical talents are high and broad.

Jindo, a place where anything is possible if connected to the sea.
These boats were part of a long boat procession that paraded for the Jindo visitors.

The mythical aura of Jindo is more than just legend, and gugak—Korean traditional music and performing arts—has rich history as well for near Jindo island is where brilliant Admiral Yi Sun-shin (1545-1598) fought with his famed turtle ships to defeat the Japanese fleet. It is also the island that the unfortunate ship MV Sewol sank near in its unfortunate maritime accident just two years ago. On a lighter note, the famed Jindo dog is of course taking its name from Jindo island; the animal is no highly regarded that it is esteemed as a national treasure. Accordingly, Jindo dog shows and performances during the Jindo Sea Road Festival are scheduled to highlight the dog’s superior intelligence and loyalty to its master.

And finally, if someone adventures to Jindo island, whether during festival season or not, a visit is said not to be complete unless one enjoys the local Jindo hongju, a 40% alcoholic drink made from whole grains, rice and jicho, a local medicinal herb extract. The bright red liquor, hence its name “hong” for red, is the only distilled red-colored liquor in the world, and it is said not to give someone a hangover the next morning. With that in mind, the visitor can enjoy the mystical flavor of the island while walking the sea path, listening to gugak or simply drinking the medicinal-herb liquor.

Korean traditional wrestling with professionals

After the professionals exhibited their skills, foreigners could participate. My friend and one other were the only foreigners of about eight who could "triumph" over the professionals. They brought with them Western wrestling tricks unknown to the Korean pros.

Published in Korean Quarterly, Vol 19, No 40, Summer 2016, p 49, 64-65.

1871 Shinmiyangyo Invasion of Ganghwa Island

Thomas Duvernay, PhD in Korean studies and passionate in his research on the 1871 Shinmiyangyo invasion of Ganghwa Island. Shinmiyangyo is the term coined by the Koreans based on the "Shinmi" year from the Chinese calendar, and "yang" meaning western or western disturbance, and so, the Shinmiyangyo in essence means "the western disturbance in the Shinmi year". The tour was hosted by the RAS with the following information regarding what the tour would include:

In the spring of 1871, five US warships entered Korean waters with the stated goal of securing a treaty for the safety of shipwrecked mariners. At the time, Korea still had very negative feelings from several bad interactions with Westerners in the five preceding years. Through cultural misunderstandings and the mishandling of the situation between the Korean and US governments, hostilities broke out. In the end, Korean forces reportedly lost more than three hundred troops, while the US lost only three. It was a so-called "weekend war" that changed the course of relations between the two countries, and continues to be a historic point of contention with many people on both sides. 

Source

The tour begins at the Choji fort where the US landing party first arrived on Korean shores. Although the first shot took place on June 1, 1871 up the straits from Choji, and the first shot of the June 10-12 battles took place on a small island just south of the fort, this place is where the main action started on the morning of June 10, 1871. The tour includes the fort and commentary on military battles and strategies employed in the surrounding areas, including the landing area that used to be mud flats, where men while wearing heavy packs and carrying weighty artillery dragged the 300-plus-pound cannons through the mud. The mud flats have since been reclaimed for farming, along with the area that was the overnight tenting spot for the US forces. [Since the tour was in an unplanned soaking and continuous rain, it was easier for us to imagine to some extent the soggy ground and miserable conditions experienced by the soldiers.]

After advancing up the road, we will pass the hill where Marines posted a picket overnight on June 10 and joined up with sailors as they marched along towards their next objective, the Deokjin fort. While no fighting took place at that fort—Korean troops had left suddenly before US troops arrived—it was the site where Marines took a famous photograph on top of the fort's walls, which are still there. It was from this point that the arduous "line of march" across a stretch of hills, in the hot June sun, was taken up by the US troops on their way to the stronghold of Korean forces, the Sondolmok fort, which is attached to the main fortress of Gwangseongbo. 

Source

From there, we will head to the small village of "Bonggolmaeul", which is in a valley surrounded by parallel hills that US and Korean forces traversed in opposition to each other. It is where much of the fighting took place between Korean and US forces, but is almost unknown as such to most people, historian and villager alike. From there we will hike around the hills where US artillery were positioned while troops pushed on towards their objective, along the opposite hills where Korean forces struggled to gain an advantage over their foes. 

At this point, the tour will conclude its own "line of march" at the same place US and Korean forces did: Gwangseongbo/Sondolmok fort. This is where the fighting drew to its conclusion with Koreans making a last stand in the small, 30 meter diameter fort. It is where, against overwhelming firepower, General Eo Jae-yeon and at least a couple hundred of his troops met their end without surrender. Not only will we tour around the reconstructed forts, but also the hills south and west of the Sondolmok fort where the main attack happened nearly one and a half centuries ago. Our tour culminates a few kilometers away at the Ganghwa Historical Museum, which houses the general's flag that was finally returned to Korea on long-term loan by the US Naval Academy Museum.

Korean General Eo Uh Je-yeon's captured battle flag, called Sujagi, taken on board the USS Colorado 
and then transported to the United States as a spoil of war. 
The Chinese character "su" meaning "martial" is very appropriate for a war flag.

The decimation of General Eo Jae-yeon and his forces.  

Thomas Duvernay, PhD (Korean studies), is an associate professor in the College of Basic Studies at Yeungnam University in Gyeongsan, Gyeongsangbukdo, where he teaches Korean history and English. His main historical focus is on the late Joseon dynasty, with his main interest being the 1871 Shinmiyangyo. He campaigned for years for the return of the flag of the Korean general, Eo Jae-yeon, and, in cooperation with the Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea, was successful with it coming back on long-term loan in 2007. His other interest is Korean traditional archery, which he has practiced since 1993. His wife, Moon-ok Lee, is an English teacher in a Korean high school, and his son, Nick, is an assistant professor at the Catholic University of Korea in Bucheon.

Background insights at the beginning of the tour:

In 1866 the General Sherman, an American ship, tried to sail up the Yamha (?) River and it ran aground. Though it was an American ship, it was leased by a British company, sailed from China and had a very mixed crew of about 24 aboard. Only three of the 24 were Americans: the captain, a missionary and one other. In any regard, when the General Sherman ran aground, aggression on what appears to be both sides took place and in the end the well-armed trading vessel was set afire, and ultimately all those on board killed. The vessel had entered the Korean waters, well-known to be under an isolationism policy, with intents of establishing trade and diplomatic relations with Americans based in China. 

This was a fail, not only because of methods for carrying out establishing trade but also in the same year, just prior in fact to the General Sherman's entrance, a French ship had also gone to Ganghwa and had been asking about the Catholic burnings of previous years. The French had left without information and in anger had burned the national archives, which resulted in revenge and retaliation tactics of the Koreans whereupon five more Catholics were killed.

However, when the Americans came into Korean waters in the 1871 expedition, it was not to question the destroying of the General Sherman or killing of the crew members. Establishing trade relations was the reason as the American hold in the Far East was getting a bit tenuous at the time so the Americans were seeking opportunities to get a stronger trade base. The 1871 expedition ended up in an attack on the island, and only later was the 1866 burning of the General Sherman tacked on to the reasons for attacking the Korean isolationists. By tacking on the "unjust" burning of the General Sherman, the American government could better justify to the American people its reason for a military attack.

The initial reason for the Americans to enter the Korean waters was to survey the Yamha (?) River. After arriving, the Americans negotiated with the Koreans, but the Koreans didn't give an answer to the Americans, which means in the non-confrontational Korean society that they didn't agree, but their silence was taken by the Americans as agreement since they didn't dispute what was proposed. With this misunderstanding, the five American ships preceded up the river to do survey work. One small boat was attacked and there was surprise, so they sent out a "message". "Messages" were posted on a stick on the beach (in Chinese) and then picked up by the Koreans, taken to officials who would compose their reply and post in the same way.

The Americans asked why they had been attacked and demanded a formal apology within 10 days. 10 days came and went. On the last day, however, a raft was sent floating down the river loaded with cows, chickens and thousands of eggs along with a note that said, "You will be hungry on your way home." So basically they were saying, "Please leave!" The Americans did not feel this was an apology, so they decided to attack on June 10.

On a deeper political level, the Americans couldn't back down from this "lack of apology" because the foreigner situation in China was very shaky at the time, and because word traveled swiftly between China and Korea so the Americans had to show strength, more to protect the foreigners and foreign communities in China rather than make headway in survey or trade in Korea. Therefore, they felt it necessary to attack.

Facts about the Shinmiyangyo battle:

Where: Anchorage was at Jakyak Island in between Yeongjong Island and Incheon. Fighting took place from Hwangsan Island up to Gwangseongbo on Ganghwa Island, and also Deokpojin on the mainland.

When: The United States Asiatic Squadron entered Korean waters on May 23, 1871, and departed on July 3, 1871. The first shots were exchanged on June 1, 1871, with the final fighting taking place from June 10-12.

Who: US forces: Five ships of the United States Asiatic Squadron (Colorado, Alaska, Benicia, Monocacy, and Palos) with a total of over 1,200 sailors and marines. Of those, the total number taking part in the landing was 759 men. The crews of the steam launches and boat keepers was 118 men, with the actual landed fighting forces being 651 men (546 sailors, 105 marines). Of those, three were killed in action and ten were wounded. Korean forces: The number is not exactly known, but estimations were over 600 men (although official US accounts were in the thousands). The estimated loss for Koreans was about 350 men (243 dead were counted within the fortress area), and 20 taken prisoner.

Why: In short, Korea was a missing puzzle piece. China and Japan both had relations with the West, while Korea did not. Many overtures were made by Western countries, but all were rebuffed. Because of a very big cultural misunderstanding between the US and Korea, shots were exchanged on June 1, 1871, and the stage was set for the main fighting a few days later.

The group who avidly "drank up" the words of Professor Duverney while being baptized continually with spring rains.

Tour members with Professor Thomas Duvernay in front of the returned Sujaki, the flag that was captured in 1871 and taken to the US, where it sadly was just rolled up and labeled with a little card in a US museum, very not appreciated. This flag represents a national treasure of Korea and Professor Duvernay campaigned for years to have the flag repatriated to its home country. The flag was finally returned on l0-year ong-term loan to Korea in 2007 and is housed in the specially built Ganghwa War Museum to showcase it as a representative feature for the history of Ganghwa Island. The flag is 4.5 meters x 4.5 meters, and unlike western flags that are hung by a lateral end, Korean flags were hung like giant pendants from large horizontal beams of wood.

Return of Cultural Properties for Greece, Ethiopia, Korea

Professor Lee Geun-gwan just completed a two-year term as Chairperson of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee Promoting the Return of Cultural Properties to their Countries of Origin. He is indeed qualified to speak about the complex and emotionally-charged subject of cultural properties and the country in which they should be displayed, treasured, exist. Professor Lee discussed new trends in the international norms on the issue and examined several important cases involving Greece, France, Israel, Korea and a few other countries. He also reviewed the current Korean position on return of cultural properties and made suggestions on how the ROK could craft a mature and balanced approach. If he still held the chairperson position, he would not be free to express many of his insights; as former chairperson is once again allowed the scholastic voicing of his advice and opinions.

Cultural Nationalism vs Cultural Universalism

Cultural nationalism is a nationalism in which the nation is defined by the shared culture within it, and thus focuses on the national identity shaped by cultural traditions and by language, not by concepts of common ancestry or race.

Cultural universalism, also known as human universalism, is a belief that the culture has elements, patterns, traits, institutions that are common to all human cultures worldwide. In Donald Brown's book Human Universals (1991), he defines human universals as comprising "those features of culture, society, language, behavior and psyche for which there are no known exceptions". 

Professor Lee introduces these concepts as being fundamental to addressing the question of identity and state of belongingness to some/many of the treasures pilfered/borrowed/etc from other countries and permanently kept within their own. These concepts are what drive the sense of true ownership to the artifacts in question.

WELL-KNOWN CULTURAL PROPERTY CASES

Possession and ownership of Jewish World War II artifacts

Adele Bloch-Bauer I - Source

The famous oil and gold on canvas painting of Adele Bloch-Bauer (1881-1925) was done by Gustav Klimt in about 1903/4. Adele Bloch-Bauer was an art-loving Vienesse salon lady and a patron and close friend of Gustav Klimt, and she is the only model painted twice by Klimt. Adele died of meningitis in 1925, and in her will requested her husband Friedrich to donate the Klimt painting to the Austrian State Gallery. In 1938 Friedrich as a Jew was forced to flee from the invading Nazis. He died in Zurich in 1945, bequeathing his estate to his nephew and nieces, among whom was Maria Altmann. In 2000 Maria sued Austria in a US court for the ownership of the Adele Bloch-Bauer I painting, and in 2006 was recognized as the rightful owner of the painting. She immediate sold it in August of the same year for $135 million (a record prize for a painting) to Ronald Lauder, son of Estee Lauder, who put it on display in the Neue Galerie in NYC.

Inheriting and immediately selling an artifact after contesting internationally for it based on cultural  ownership raises ethical questions on its true cultural value. As Wikipedia puts it, this return of a cultural item transforms "a story of justice and redemption after the Holocaust" into "yet another tale of crazy, intoxicating market".

GREECE - The Elgin / Parthenon Marbles

Known as the Elgin Marbles in the United Kingdom and marketed as such to the world, the Greeks are denigrated by the name and refer to them as the Parthenon Marbles. The Parthenon Marbles were originally part of the temple of Parthenon and other buildings on the Acropolis of Athens. Thomas Bruce, the 7th Earl of Elgin, claimed their ownership in 1801 via a controversial permit from the Sublime Porto, which then ruled Greece. He transported them to Britain, and in 1816 sold them to the British Museum where they are still housed. The name Elgin Marbles was applied to them as per the Earl of Elgin who brought them to England; however, the name Elgin has connotations of looting and negativism so the Greeks refer to them as the Parthenon Marbles to reference their greatness and cultural connection.

Elgin Marbles aka Parthenon Marbles in part

In the 1830s Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire and has since been wanting the Marbles returned to their home country. Demands for repatriation of the Marbles have been ignored. In the 1930s the Greeks were highly enraged at the Brits for using damaging chemicals on their Parthenon Marbles when trying to clean them. The Greeks had a case in demanding their return since the holding country was not properly caring for the "borrowed" items. 

One of the reasons Britain refuses to return the Parthenon Marbles is because there was no museum to showcase the Marbles. Greece built a museum expressly for housing the Marbles. The Marbles still have not been returned, and this case of cultural property ownership has become a world famous controversial issue. 

In 2014, UNESCO offered to mediate between Greece and the UK, but was turned down by the UK. From December 6, 2014 through January 18, 2015 the British Museum loaned a river-god figure of the Marbles to the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. This was the first time the British Museum lent any of the Marbles and this action caused considerable controversy.

(Wikipedia) "In 2015 the Greek government said that it would no longer pursue legal actions to regain possessions of the Marbles, but it would instead focus on a "diplomatic and political approach". 

ETHIOPIA - Obelisk of Axum

Aksum Obelisk, Tigray Region, Ethiopia
 (aka Rome Stele)

The Obelisk of Axum is 1700 years old, is 24 meters (79 feet) tall, and weighs 160 tones. It is one of the most famous obelisks of Ethiopia and is thought to have been carved and erected during the 4th century A.D. in the Kingdom of Aksum, an ancient Ethiopian civilization. An obelisk or stele is a burial marker for someone of greatness (royalty or nobility based on the height, style, intricacy and pattern, etc) and hundreds of steles exist in "stelae fields" in Ethiopia. The Obelisk of Axum was decorated with two false doors and what appears to be decorative windows on all sides. Like others in the region it had fallen due to seismic activity, military invasions, and general decay. 

When Italian soldiers following the Italian conquest of Ethiopia in 1935 found the Obelisk, it had collapsed and broken into five pieces. As a symbol of birth of the "new Roman Empire", it was transported to Italy and erected in Rome. In a 1947 agreement, Italy agreed to return the stele to Ethiopia, but little action was taken for 50 years because of technical difficulties, the cost of transport and reconstruction which the Italian government said they did not have, and other logistics. Finally through fund-raising, the stele was transported back to Ethiopia and reassembled by a UNESCO team in 2008.

SOUTH KOREA - "Uigwe" or "Royal Protocols"

Front cover of the Odaesan archive
copy of the Uigwe for the funeral of
Empress Myeongsong

Uigwe is the generic name for a vast collection of approximately 3,895 books recording in detail royal rituals and ceremonies of the Joseon Dynasty of the Koreas. Uigwe loosely translates as "book of state rites" or more conceptually correct as "Royal Protocols". This vast collection of state records was inscribed in UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme in 2007.

In 1782 the Oegyujanggak Library was built in the ancient royal palace on Ganghwa Island to accommodate the overflow of books from the main Gyujanggak Library at Changdeokgung Palace in Seoul. In 1866, French expeditionary forces came from China to seek explanations concerning a number of executions of French Catholic missionaries in Korea. Unable to gain access to authorities, the French attacked Ganghwa Island and seized the royal books and a vast number of other artifacts. In 1975, a Korean scholar Park Byeong-sen discovered the Uigwe while working as a librarian.

The books were requested for return in 1992. In 1993 one book was returned with the promised to return the remaining collection. However, since French law prohibits nationals assets to be transferred abroad, South Korea tried to retrieve the documents through a permanent lease. After a series of long disputes and negotiations, in 2011 297 volumes of 191 different Uigwes were returned to South Korea on a five-year renewable loan basis. There is little doubt in many scholars minds that the Uigwe will permanently remain in their country of origin and the "lease" is just a semantic for their permanent return.

Similarly in 1922, during the Japanese colonial period, Japan also took many of the Uigwe and other relics to the University of Tokyo. In 2010, Japan released five copies to mark the centenary of Japan's annexation of Korean and to affirm peaceful relations between the two countries. 1,200 volumes including 150 Uigwe were permanently returned in 2011.

SOUTH KOREA - Buddha of the Kannon-ji

The buddhas stolen from the Kannon-ji temple in Tsushima city.
The Kannon Buddha is on the right.

In 2012, a Bodhisattva Kannon (or Guanyin) statue was stolen from the Kannon-ji temple in Tsushima city, Nagasaki by a Korean man. There is little dispute that the Buddha is of Korean origin, but the question remains how the Japanese temple secured the Buddha and was it through legitimate means. On February 26, 2013 the Daejeon district court in Korea gave a provisional ruling stating that until the temple could prove that the statue was acquired honestly, the Korean government would not return it to the Japanese. This provisional ruling is causing diplomatic friction between the two countries, particularly as the Buddha is a statue of "Kannon Observing the Cries of the World" and is designated a cultural treasure of Nagasaki Prefecture. The man stealing the Buddha and other statues was arrested by Korean police, but following his arrest a group of citizens insisted that the Buddha was made at Pusok-sa temple in South Chuncheong Province, and accordingly filed an action requesting its return to the temple. The district court ruling is not absolute, and a review is taking place to determine if the judgement is valid under international law.

OTHER CLAIMS FOR CULTURAL REPATRIATION

CHINA - 12 zodiac bronze statues looted from the Old Summer Palace

tap to enlarge - source

In 1860 during the Second Opium War, British and French expeditionary forces looted the treasures of the Old Summer Palace, China. Among the looted treasures were the highly admired 12 bronze Chinese zodiac statues of the water clock fountain that would spout water to tell the time. In recent years there have been many attempts to repatriate Chinese art and cultural artifacts. However, only seven of the treasured 12 zodiac icons have been recovered, five of them bought at auction. The two most recent acquisitions, the rat and the rabbit, were acquired via a controversial auction in 2009 in which the buyer, a wealthy Chinese man, won the auction then refused to pay. They were purchased for $40 million and donated to the Chinese government in 2013. There are yet five more needing to repatriated to their home country.

NEW ZEALAND - repatriation of human remains

France recently returned indigenous cultural artifacts to New Zealand. The Karanga Aotearoa Repatriation Programme, established in partnership between Maori and the New Zealand government in 2003 and with the passing of a repatriation of human remain laws in Europe (2007) has since been able to have over 350 Maori and Moriori ancestral remains repatriated to Aoteroa New Zealand.

IRAQ - pillage of Baghdad National Museum

In 2003 the Baghdad National Museum was pillaged during an invasion. More than 170,000 items were said to have been pillaged, smashed, confiscated, a large portion of Iraq's tangible culture. In 2006 some cultural items were gathered, returned or retrieved from hiding and the museum was reopened. In 2015, due to international efforts the museum was able to recover in part some of the ancient artifacts. However, much of the culture has been permanently lost or is still needing to be repatriated.

ARGUMENTS OVER THE RETURN OF CULTURAL OBJECTS

The issue of return was forcefully raised and pursued in the 1970s, known as the "age of decolonization", which lead to the establishment of the ICPRCP (Inter-governmental Committee Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to its Countries of Origin). 

Arguments for the return of cultural artifacts: 

• Cultural objects achieve their maximum value and significance in their "original context"
• Right of cultural self-determination (right to cultural self-identity)
• Effective ways to address the "unfortunate past" of colonization

Arguments against the return of cultural artifacts:

• Cultural objects in question have been "naturalized" or assumed a "universal" significance (the idea of the "universal museum")
• In terms of inter-temporal law, the transfer of the objects was, at least technically, "legal"
• Concern of the "domino effect"

Other hurdles:

• The veneer of technical legality (purchase, exchange, donation, etc)
• Passage of long time
• Rule of bona fide purchase
• Weak negotiation power of the "victim states"

EXTENT OF and CRITERIA FOR RETURN CLAIMS

Extent of claims - not all cultural property displaced during colonial domination should be the objects of return claims

Criteria for return claims:

• Cultural objects with substantial significance for the cultural identity of former colonies
• Heightened illegality involved in the taking of the cultural property
• Utilization of the cultural property in a humiliating manner
• Conspicuous asymmetry in terms of context-appropriateness

SUGGESTIONS FOR KOREA

Heightened interest in the issue in Korean society

• recent examples of repatriation

• keen interest in the issue on the part of the Korean government and civil society as represented by various NGOs

Establishment of the "Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation" (July 2012) 

Need for an epistemological equilibrium between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism/universalism

• It is expected that Korea will contribute to the articulation of an inter-subjective discourse that duly takes account of the sufferings inflicted on the colonized peoples and, at the same time, orients itself to future cooperation.

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Prof. Lee received an LL.B. from Seoul National University, an LL.M from Georgetown University, and a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge. He teaches Public International Law, History and Theory of International Law, and the Law of the Sea at Seoul National University. In the summer of 2010 he served as Director of Studies at the Hague Academy of International Law, and he previously taught at the ROK Naval Academy, the Graduate School of Public Policy at the University of Tokyo, and the School of Law at the University of Hawaii.