Bangudae Petroglyphs, Ulsan

Two of my students put together this phenomenal presentation on the Bangudae Petroglyphs of Ulsan, and with their permission I am able to share their research. Thank you, Tae Ho and Sun-Hyung! I am so impressed with your 'sacred site' research!

For more on the mysteries of Bangudae, reference Duncan Caldwell's "Save the Prehistoric Whales". Duncan Caldwell is a archeologist, ethnologist, painter, poet, writer, lecturer, in short, a Renaissance Man!

Or visit the National Museum of Korea:

Bangudae Petroglyphs in Ulsan 
(National Treasure No. 285)

The carvings and line drawing on the rocky wall of Bangudae enable us to get a glimpse of the life of prehistoric people by means of vivid portrayals of their hunting, fishing, and festive activities. Among the whales, turtles, tigers, deer, and other animals represented here, some appear as being captured in nets or cages. One can also see people in boats and warriors dancing with their genitals exposed. It is assumed that the petroglyphs functioned as a sort of prayer for bounteous harvest and success in hunting and fishing.

Meaning of Dragons in Buddhist Temples

Dragons Who Guard the Buddhadharma and Temples

One of the most common designs adorning temples is the dragon. Dragon designs are not only common but also often decorate important features in a temple compound. They appear on the pillars and under the eaves of Dharma halls; on the ceilings, walls and canopies in Dharma halls; on the staircases in from of Dharma halls; in murals and on the hook from which temple bells are hung. 

What is the stature of dragons in Buddhism that make them so ubiquitous in temples? Dragons are guardian deities that protect Buddhas and the Buddha realms; they admire Buddhas. They also appear on the prow of the Wisdom Dragon Ship, a mythical ship that carries beings from the shore of this world to the other shore of Buddha's Pure Land. How is that dragons came to be embraced by Buddhism? Let's take a look at where dragons are found in a temple and also learn some temple foundation legends involving dragons.

A Sacred Animal and an Icon of Supreme Authority

What do dragons mean to Buddhism? In the West, dragons are often seen as an icon of evil. On the other hand, some Indian myths, the country where Buddhism originated, feature dragon gods, or naga, a serpent deity. In China and Korea, dragons are an icon of supreme authority and an auspicious creature of unlimited abilities. During Korea's Joseon Dynasty, the king's visage was referred to as yongan (literally, dragon face) and his clothes were yongpo (dragon robes). Although dragons are mythical creatures, they are described as sacred beings and symbols of the highest authority.

As Buddhism was gradually established in India and various indigenous deities were embraced as guardian deities of Buddhism, dragons were also embraced. In India, these dragon deities had the appearance of snakes. One such dragon deity had the form of a king cobra. One image of a dragon deity appears with Vishnu in a 6th century bas relief carved in the stone grotto located at Mamallapuram in southern India. It features a seven-headed cobra with one body. Similarly, other Indian dragon deities also had the form of a serpent, but as Buddhism spread to China, their outward appearance changed to that of a dragon, the form we are now familiar with in Korea. The typical physical features of a dragon include antlers on the head, scales on a serpent-like body, and four legs with sharp claws. Combining the characteristics of many animals, dragons sometimes have the head of a cow, the antlers of a deer, the tail of a fish, whiskers and a wish-fulfilling gem in its mouth.

As Buddhism was introduced from India and gradually established in China, the dragon deity shed the appearance of an Indian serpent and took on the appearance of a traditional Chinese dragon. Influenced by Chinese Buddhism, Korea also embraced the Chinese dragon. However, their similar appearance doesn't mean Chinese and Korean dragons have the same characteristics and symbolic meaning.

Two dragon heads protruding from the Main Buddha Hall at Heungguksa Temple in Yeosu. A Dharma hall is compared to a ship that journeys to the Pure Land along with the Buddha [sic]. The carved dragon heads on the pillar capitals symbolize the Dharma hall's role as the Wisdom Dragon Ship.

Protecting Sentient Beings and Guiding Them to the Pure Land

Dragons depicted in Korean temples have their own distinctive roles that combine the character of the Indian serpent deity and Buddhist symbolism into the traditional form of the Chinese dragon.

Western dragons are usually depicted burning people alive and imprisoning princesses. Unlike their evil Western counterpart, Eastern dragons have a different character, although retaining some of the violent characteristics of their Western cousins. Dragons in Buddhism have transformed their nature after being influenced by the Buddha and his teachings. Buddhism adapted the craftiness and great power of dragons and applied them to protect the Buddhadharma. A dragon without this transformation must remain an earth-bound monster with no chance to ascend to heaven. 

In fact, there is a deep association between the Buddha and dragons. When the Buddha was born, two nagas name Nanda (Nagaraja) and Upananda sprayed pure water over Siddhartha's body to bathe him. When the Buddha taught the Lotus Sutra, the eight dragon kings listened to his teaching and admired him. Dragon deities of dragon kings are one of the eight kinds of beings that protect the Buddhadharma: devas, dragons, yaksas (spirits of the dead), gandharvas (demi-gods), asuras, garudas, kinnara (heavenly demi-gods of music) and majoraga (snake spirits). 

After encountering the Buddha, dragons brought rains to make crops grow to feed sentient beings. Dragons are also the guardian deities of rivers and oceans, and protectors of the Buddhadharma and who ward off evil. 

In Buddhism, dragons guide sentient beings to the Buddha's world of wisdom, as in the case of the Wisdom Dragon Ship. Buddhism uses the symbol of a ship to explain the journey from this world to the "other shore" of enlightenment, the Pure Land. This mythical ship is usually depicted having a dragonhead prow and a dragon-tail stern. A Dharma hall can also be compared to a ship that carries Buddhists to the other shore where the Buddha resides. Some prominent dragon images found in a temple are: the two dragons that are carved on the top of the two pillars on the central facade of the Dharma hall, and the dragon heads protruding from the corners of the eaves outside a Dharma hall. The dragons on the central facade usually have their heads outside the Dharma hall and their tails inside the hall. The dragon faces protruding from the eaves are often at the front of a Dharma hall and their tails protrude from the the back of the building. This reinforces the symbolism of Dharma halls as the Wisdom Dragon Ship. The moment one steps into a Dharma hall, they are symbolically on a ship heading to the other shore. In other words, dragons are deities who transport sentient beings to the Pure Land.

A Wisdom Dragon Ship painted on the exterior wall of Geungnakjeon (Hall of the Pure Land)
at Silleuksa Temple in Jecheon.

Depictions of the Wisdom Dragon Ship are also found in temple murals. One the rear exterior wall of the Pure Land Hall at Tongdosa Temple in Yangsan is a picture of the Bodhisattva Guide of Souls and Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva guiding sentient beings to the Pure Land aboard the Wisdom Dragon Ship. Sailing through harsh seas, the ship has a dragonhead prow and a dragon-tail stern, with many joyous people in the cabin. Similar scenes may be found on the read exterior wall of the Main Buddha Hall at Bogwangsa Temple in Paju, and on the right side exterior wall of the Pure Land Hall at Silleuksa Temple in Jecheon.

Who is the tenacious Bodhisattva clinging to a rope? Tenacious Bodhisattva, or "akchak Bosal", refers to the humorous depiction of a woman who was too late to board the Wisdom Dragon Ship but was determined to go to the Pure Land, even if she had to cling to rope trailing behind the ship. There is no written record of her, but this is the story that has been passed down orally.

Once upon a time, the Wisdom Dragon Ship docked to take on people bound for the Pure Land, people of deep faith who had accomplished many virtuous deeds and accred great merit. One woman lingered too long bidding farewell to her children, and found the ship pulling away when she arrived. She caught a rope thrown to her by the boatman and arrived in the Pure Land by tenaciously holding onto the rope. She has been called the Tenacious Bodhisattva since then, and became a model for practitioners who practice fiercely with a vow to attain enlightenment in this life. The way she is depicted clinging to the single rope may symbolize single-minded adherence to the path.

Finding the Hidden Dragons in a Temple

Dragon images have different meanings according to their location.

Buddhism uses the dragon design to protect sacred spaces. Other designs used to adorn temples include lotuses, chrysanthemums, Asian plums, lions, elephants, fish, monkeys, and even mythical creatures like phoenixes and dragons. Among these, dragons are one of the most powerful features that protect the Buddha realm and are found in many places in the temple compound. Where can we see these dragons and what are their meanings?

Temple decorations are usually referred to as "adornments" as they embody the ideal world of the Buddha realm that is filled with beauty and dignity. Dragons have different meanings depending on where they are carved or painted. First and foremost, dragons are considered deities who protect the Buddhadharma.

Dragons Have Become Protectors of the Buddhadharma

At the entrance to most temples are bridges that symbolize liberation. They remind us that before entering the Buddha realm of a temple, we should wash away our afflictions symbolically as though in a running stream. These bridges are often appropriately named with names like: Geungnakgyo (Bridge of the Pure Land), Neungheogyo (Bridge of Ascension to the Void), Seungseongyo (Bridge of Aspiring Hermits), Sesimgyo (Bridge of Washing the Mind) and Haetalgyo (Bridge of Liberation). Sometimes a dragon's head protrudes from underneath these bridges. One example is Seungseongyo at Seonamsa Temple. The dragon's head is not clearly visible unless one walks down to the mountain stream. It was not meant to be a decoration but to ward off any evil that may infiltrate the pure realm of the temple. 

A dragon head hidden underneath the stone bridge named Samcheonggyo at Songgwangsa Temple in Suncheon. The dragon wards off evil forces to keep them from infiltrating the pure realm of the temple.

A similar bridge is found at Songgwangsa Temple. The stone bridge, named Samcheonggyo, also has a dragon's head underneath it to protect the temple. Crossing this bridge we enter the temple compound. The Gate of Heavenly Kings enshrines the four heavenly kings who guard the four cardinal directions. Each king holds one or two symbolic objects in his hand. 

• Dhrtarastra rules the east and has great power to protect the state; he holds a lute. 

• Virudharka rules the south and has great power to cultivate life; he hold a sword. 

• Virupaksa rules the west and sees all with wide open eyes; he holds a dragon and a wish-fulfilling jewel (cintamani). 

• Faisravana, who rules the north, is the head of the four heavenly kings; he holds a stupa and a three-pronged spear. 

Among these four, it is Virupaksa, ruler of the west, who controls the dragons, which are said to control the clouds, rain and thunder, as well as to rule the whole world. Living in the west on the midriff of Mt. Sumeru, Virupaksa guards the western lands with his large, wide eyes and helps sentient beings.

Hidden Meanings of Dragon Adornments

Dragons, whose function is to praise the Buddha and protect the Buddha realm, are found inside Dharma halls too. They are carved or painted on the wooden canopies above Buddha statues, on main crossbeams and on ceilings. In particular, dragons depicted on canopies symbolize protection of the Buddhadharma and the supreme authority of Buddhas.

Canopies in Buddha halls always feature dragons to symbolize the protection
of the Buddhadharma and the supreme authority of the Buddha.

At Buseoksa Temple in Yeongju a coiled dragon is carved into the wooden canopy in Muryangsujeon, Hall of Immeasurable Life, known as the oldest wooden structure in Korea. The dragon is holding its head up and looking straight ahead. On the wooden canopy in the Main Buddha Hall at Heungguksa Temple in Yeosu, three dragons thrust their heads from behind two phoenixes. These dragons are also looking straight ahead as if to guard against any evil that might approach the Buddhas seated on the altar.

Meanwhile, the dragon design of the jongnyu, the hook from which a temple bell is hung, has a wide open mouth without any wish-fulfilling gem. Also called "yongnyu", the dragon on this hook is aid to have a resounding cry. That's why this dragon is depicted on the bell hook so that the Buddha's teachings can reach far out into the world. Among these bells with dragons on their hooks, you may want to check out the temple bells at Sangwonsa Temple in Pyeongchang, Naesosa Temple in Buan, Gapsa Temple in Gongju and Yongjusa Temple in Hwaseong. Of these, the beautiful bell at Sangwonsa is the oldest. The dragon head on the hook is very big, and its jaws are open wide as if it is shouting. The dragon on Naesosa's bell is bent into a loop and its mouth is also wide open. 

Most of the dragon designs on a jongnyu, the hook from which a temple bell is hung,
have a wide open mouth with no wish-fulfilling gem.

The body of a Dharma drum, struck to save all land-dwelling animals, is covered with dragon images because the sound of a Dharma drum reverberates sonorously with all the majesty of a dragon. 

On the roof of a Dharma hall, both ends of the ridge line on the roof are decorated with tiles featuring a dragon head; this is called "chimi". Dragons are also often depicted in temples because of their association with water. In Korea, the dragon is the god of life who rules all watery realms. They live in ponds, wells, rivers and oceans, and control water by giving or withholding rain. By placing dragons on the roof of a Dharma hall, Korean ancestors wanted to protect monasteries, the abode of Buddhas, from fire.

As can be seen, dragons are ubiquitous at temples, appearing under bridges, on canopies and on the pillars of Dharma halls. They are there to maintain the temple's purity and protect the Buddhadharma while the dragon designs on temple bells and Dharma drums are intended to propagate the words of the Buddha far and wide.

Interesting Dragon Myths Passed Down at Temples

In Korea, dragons are regarded as one of the four spiritual animals, along with giraffes, phoenixes and turtles. Though a mythical creature, dragons rank highest in the animal hierarchy and exercise supreme authority. That is because they lent a helping hand when humans needed them. Many legends depict dragons as guardian deities who exert their diverse talents and possess great powers. Buddhism in particular has regarded dragons as the protectors of humans and the Buddhadharma. Thus, it is not surprising that many temples have dragon legends. 

Many Korean temples have names which include the syllable "yong", (literally, dragon). Dragons also appear in temple foundation legends. Yongusa Temple in Hwaseong had its name bestowed by King Jeongjo (Joseon's 22nd king, r. 1776-1800) who saw in his dream a dragon ascending to heaven holding a wish-fulfilling gem in its mouth. It is true that dragons (or nagas) were embraced by Buddhism in India. But dragons were already important deities in Korea's indigenous faith, and as Buddhist temples were established in Korea, people wanted to maintain this association with dragons. This is apparent in the name of Yongjusa.

What Kind of Dragon Legends to Temples Have?

Dragons are a part of many interesting myths in Korea. Buddhism in particular has an intimate relationship with dragons, and many temples pass on various dragon-related legends. In 553, King Jinheung (Silla's 24th king, r. 540-576) had workers clear land to build a palace, and while they were digging, a yellow dragon appeared. Regarding this as an extraordinary omen, King Jinheung had a temple built instead of a palace and named it Hwangnyongsa (literally, Yellow Dragon Temple). Later, when eminent Silla monk Jajang was on his way back to Silla from Tang China, he encountered a dragon deity. This dragon deity told Jajang how to lead Silla to security and prosperity. The dragon deity said, "The dragon who protects Hwangnyongsa Temple is my oldest son. He guards the temple under orders from Brahma. If you establish a nine-story pagoda there when you go back to Silla, and a temple in the southern region of Gyeonggi-do, your state will enjoy peace." Back home, Jajang honored the dragon deity's advice and erected a nine-story pagoda at Hwangnyongsa and also established Taehwasa Temple.

Buseoksa Temple in Yeongju passes down the story of Seonmyo, a girl who transformed into a dragon goddess. One day the Silla monk Uisang stayed in a village overnight on his way to Tang China. A village girl named Seonmyo, who greatly admired Uisang, made a vow that he must return safely and teach Buddhism far and wide in Silla. She then threw herself into the ocean and became a dragon. Sometime later, a hostile crowd tried to obstruct Uisang's plan to build a temple, so the dragon goddess Seonmyo lifted a gigantic boulder in front of them. They ran away, and Uisang was able to establish the temple. In consideration of the dragon goddess' help, Uisang named the temple Buseoksa, meaning Floating Stone Temple.

Other temple foundation legends also involve dragons. There is a pond named Guryongji (literally, Nine Dragon Pond) by the Main Buddha Hall at Tongdosa Temple in Yangsan. The site where Tongdosa now stands was originally a great pond where nine dragons lived. In order to build a temple there, Vinaya Master Jajang asked the dragons to leave but they refused. Then Jajang set fire to a talisman, which made the pond hot. Due to the unbearable heat, five dragons ran away, and three died colliding with boulders during their escape. Only one blind dragon was left, and he asked Jajang if he could remain and guard the temple. Jajang granted its request, and preserved a corner of the great pond for the dragon to live in. This pond is still called Guryongji.

Another legend of nine dragons involves Guryongsa (Nine Dragon Temple) Temple on Mt. Chiaksan in Wonju. Guryongsa's foundation legend also involves a confrontation between a monk and nine dragons. When Uisang planned to establish this temple, the current site of the Main Buddha Hall was a pond inhabited by nine dragons. The nine dragons displayed their power to him by causing a torrential rain accompanied by thunder and lightning. Uisang remained unruffled. In response, Uisang drew a talisman and placed it in the pond. The water began to boil, and the stunned dragons fled. One of the dragons couldn't go very far and found shelter in a nearby pond. That pond is named Guryongso and is one of the eight great scenic sites of Wonju City.

The temple ruin of Ongnyongsa in Gwangyang also has a legend involving a contest with nine dragons. In this story, eight dragons converted to Buddhism while one remaining white dragon resisted. 

As can be seen, there may be minor variations, but many temple foundation legends involved dragons in one way or another.

_________________________________________________

The article and the pictures were all taken from the quarterly Templestay Korean, Vol 5: No 3, Autumn 2016. The article, "Dragons Who Guard the Buddhadharma and Temples: They Admire the Buddhas and Protect the Buddha Realms" was the feature article.

Semiwon Lotus Garden

Semiwon is becoming known as quite the tourist destination. The site is marketed as 'the garden of water and flowers', and on this day it was particularly water-full .... it was raining, and thus the reason for going: not as many visitors AND the colors would be alive and bright.

Semiwon is located at the mouth of two Han Rivers, the Buk Han Kang and the Nam Han Kang, and getting there is quite easy. By subway, take the Gyeongui-Jungang Line and get off at Yangsu station, go out exit 1 (600 scenic meters if you follow the river path and not the ugly roadways). By bus, take either #167 from Cheongryangri station getting off at Yangsu-ri and walking 500 meters, or bus #2000-1 from Gangbyeong Station getting off at Yangseo Culture and Sports Park.

According to the tourism sign:

"A garden of water and flowers, Semiwon is a lotus flower garden that was created based on an old adage, "Cleanse your mind while looking at water and beautify your mind while looking at flowers." All paths in the garden are constructed with washboards to symbolize cleansing your mind while looking at the Han River. The river water that is drawn from the Han River is designed to flow through the six ponds, where lotus flowers, water lilies, and irises are growing in order to filter out heavy metals and suspended matters before it flows back into the river. Major facilities at Semiwon include the World Water Lily Garden, which has more than 100 varieties of water lilies; Monet's Garden, which was inspired by the flower paintings of French artist Claude Monet; and Sehanjeong Garden, which was created by reproducing a painting titled Sehando (Winter Scene) by Kim Jeong-hui (1786-1856, pen-name Chusa), a prominent calligrapher of the Joseon period. When lotus flowers are in full bloom between July and August, Semiwon is filled with beautiful scents."

Spring is on the way and small touches are starting to be visible ......... amidst the refuse of last year's garden.

"Cleanse your mind while looking at water and beautify your mind while looking at flowers." 

A museum filled with lotus-decorated objects. [An epiphany for me: while I've been aware of the lotus motif for a very long time, it was particularly interesting to see a museum organized not on the period theme but on an icon theme!]

And after enjoying the beauty of the lotus gardens, we left Semiwon grounds and across the street is a rather popular restaurant that specializes in lotus-leaf rice with diverse vegetable side dishes. Fabulous flavor on top of very unique presentation!

Haenyeo Museum, Jeju

The English version of the travel booklet Jeju Haenyeo published November 2015 by Haenyeo Museum explains about the traditional diving women of Jeju Island, the haenyeo, or literally the "sea women". Excerpts from the booklet follow:

Haenyeo Museum

Haenyeo, also called jamnyeo, the women divers, only exist in Jeju Island and Japan. The terms refers to them as women who gather seaweed, abalone, or other shellfish from the sea. Because of the very uniqueness of this diving profession, they have been the focus of much attention from around the world.

Haenyeo are the symbol of Jeju women as they were the bulwark of Jeju's economy, going on long expeditions to Japan as well as other parts of Korea. As strong tenacious hold on life and pioneering spirit is characteristic of the haenyeo. 

It is believed that fishermen harvested abalone during the Joseon Dynasty. In a Jeju Topography written by Lee Gun in 1629, it is recorded that haenyeo harvested abalone. Records of haenyeo are also found in bibliographic data such as the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, Jiyoungrok, written by Lee Ik Tae, and Jonjaejeonseo by We Baek Gue.

Jeju's hanyeo also had a significant role in leading the anti-Japanese movement, fighting for their rights against the Japanese exploitation as one of the largest such movements nationwide.

It is our sincerest hope to build a museum on this historic site and develop a 21st century cultural arts mecca so that we can pass on and preserve Jeju's haenyeo culture, which has been acknowledged as a world heritage asset.

Jeju Haenyeo

Jeju haenyeo make their living by harvesting abalone, conch, sea cucumber, and hijiki from the ocean. The women are called jamsu, jamnyeo and jamsu [sic] in Jeju. Their lives are an integral part of the history of Jeju. The job they do in the sea is call muljil.

Diving seems to have begun before the period of the Three States, judging from the fact that Jeju had a record of contributing pearls to the king. It is believed that fishermen harvested abalone and presented them during Joseon Dynasty. Jeju Topography written by Lee Gun in 1629 recorded that haenyeo harvested abalones. The records of haenyeo are recorded on bibliographic data such as the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, Jiyoungrok written by Lee Ik Tae, and Jonjaejeonseo by We Baek Gue.

Jeju women are as diligent as men and learn early how to swim. They begin swimming at age 7-8 and were very skillful in muljil by age 18, and superior haenyeo by age 35. They are considered rare women and attract a lot of attention from around the world.

Muljil (Diving) Skill

Muljil skill is acquired by lengthy training and experience. Haenyeo near the ocean learned how to swim and dive in the shallow area by age 15. Physical conditions such as lung capacity, ability to withstand pressure, and capacity to adjust to cold water are needed. Cool nerves are also necessary when swimming near and encountering big fish. Jeju haenyeo have extended their skill and wisdom by learning the effective use of physical strength and knowledge of the ocean from the seniors at the Bulteok.

Sumbisori

Sumbisori is the whistling sound haenyeo make when they surface. It sounds like a "hoowi hoowi" sound when they inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide created when submerged for 1-2 minutes. Sumbisori provides fresh air to haenyeo and enables them to work extended periods of time with only short rest periods.

Knowledge about Nature

Knowledge of nature encompasses knowledge of the ocean and tides, wind, harvested things and experience. Haenyeo are able to recognize sea geography, changing tidal currents, and habitats of marine life. They can estimate growing process of seasonal marine life and harvest them accordingly. For example, the best time to harvest agar-agar is different year by year. They don't harvest abalone and conches during spawning season. The haenyeo's vast experience and accumulated knowledge of the marine ecosystem have been handed down from generation to generation.

Traditional Outfits

Traditional outfits (mulot) are composed of three pieces: mulsojungi (pants), muljeoksam (jacket) and mulsugun (typing hair). Mulsojungi, which is made of cotton, is designed for minimizing the water resistance to work well under the sea. It has a side opening for haenyeo to change clothes without showing their bodies. The distribution of rubber diving suits has greatly increased haenyeo's income since being used in the early part of 1970.

Diving Equipment

Diving equipment includes swimming googles, tewak mangsari, bitchang and kakuri. The non-traditional swimming goggles have been used since the 19th century, while the other pieces of equipment were modified with modern development. 

• the tewak can be clasped to the chest as a floating devise while swimming
• the mangsari can be hung on the tewak for storing harvested sea products
• the bitchang, a metal tool, is used to pick up abalones attached to rocks
• the kakuri, considered the most useful to divers, is for picking up sea products between rocks, turn rocks over, pull their bodies by attaching the tool to a rock and pulling

Jeju designated 15 items comprising the swimming suits and diving apparatus as Folk Material, No. 10.

Bulteok

Bulteok is a place where hanyeo change clothes and prepare for diving or rest between dives. The bulteok surrounded with stones arranged in a circle has a bonfire in the center for warming the haenyeo, and is a place where haenyeo can exchange information and skills on diving, fishing grounds and consolidate their ideas. There used to be 3-4 bulteok in each village, depending on the size of the village. Currently only 70 bulteok exist throughout Jeju as the bulteok have been replaced by modern dressing rooms equipped with hot and cold water facilities since 1985.

Chulga Haenyeo

Haenyeo who have left Jeju for foreign countries or moved to the mainland to areas like  Gyeongsangnam-do, Jeolla-do and Chungcheong-do are called chulga haenyeo. The songs which haenyeo used to sing, pulling oars while moving to the islands or distant sea are in general called haenyeo songs. The songs expressed the emotions and cognition of the haenyeo community which still exists today and were designated as Intangible Cultural Asset No. 1 by Jeju-do in 1971.

Faith

Haesindang (shrine) situated beside the sea is a ritual place for haenyeo to pray for their safety and abundance. Jamsugut and yowanggut are dances performed for safety and abundance. Jamsugut is performed on the 8th of March (lunar calendar) in Dongkimnyongri and is a symbolic ritual and festival for the haenyeo community. The cost of the dance is shared by the haenyeo. The dance, illustrates unity of life and work while the ritual (yowangmaji) calls the Dragon King and prays for abundance and safety. Similarly, sidream is a homeopathic magical ritual to plant seeds into the sea symbolic of harvesting an abundance of abalone, conch, agar-agar and hijiki.

Contribution to and Participation in the Common Good for the Community

Jeju haenyeo helped to pave the main road and build a school by donating part of their income. All proceeds from the fixed area of "ljangbadang" [sic] went to the head of the village who worked for the village official. There used to be "school badang" which supplied school support fees for elementary school.

When the school in Onpyeong, Sungsaneup burnt down in 1950, haenyeo contributed funds raised by selling seaweed from "school badang" and rebuilt the school from 1951 - 1958. The school's supporting association erected a commemorative monument in 1961 to pay tribute to haenyeo's charitable deeds.

Legend of the Haenyeo

There used to be a haenyeo living in Mosulpo, a haenyeo who didn't suffer from smallpox. She encountered a sea turtle on dry land along the road in Geumropo. Feeling pity for it, she took it to the sea. As it swam farther and farther into the sea, it conveyed its thankfulness.

Picking up abalones in Yongduam, she ran into an old man while jewels were shining. He said, "I'm very grateful for your kindness. You have saved my son." Handing a piece of flower to her, he said, "This flower will protect you from smallpox." She later found out the flower was from the black huckleberry plant. And her whole life she never suffered from smallpox.

"Tamnajichobon" written by Lee Won Cho 1843.

Other comments/points of interest from the museum brochure:

The Jeju Haenyeo Festival (September - October sometime) is the nation's only women-centered maritime festival, which is intended to hand down haenyeo traditional culture. All women divers on Jeju participate, and in the festival are event like:

• a haenyeo muljil (diving) competition
• tewak swimming competition
• tourist programs for experiencing muljil (diving) and bareutjabi (the traditional way of fishing to collect seafood using a torch)

Performance for Tourists (April - November) are arranged. Haenyeo songs which have been designed as Provincial Intangible Cultural Property No.1 are sung sturdily expressing Jeju women's spirit. These songs sung by haenyeo all over the island are in danger of disappearing due to the reduction in the numbers of haenyeo and changes in their work environment. These performances aim to increase awareness at home and abroad of cultural excellence of Jeju women divers and the cultural value of haenyeo tewak dance, haenyeo songs (such as leodosana or myeolchi hurineunsori songs sung when myeolchi are caught) and others. Jeju Haenyeo Museum hosts the Haenyeo Song Festival every year.

Taepyeong Salt Flats and Sea Salt Production

Traditionally, Koreans made salt by boiling sea water creating what is called “parched salt”, “fire salt”, “boiled-down salt” or “flesh salt”. With the demand for larger quantities of salt a new method was implemented—the usage of tidal flat salterns. These were first widely used in Gyeonggi-do, Juan, and Soreapo in the city of Incheon, eventually spreading down the West Sea coastline to such areas like Gomsoman Bay in Jeollabuk-do and Sinan-gun and Yeonggwang-gun in Jeollanam-do, with the latter two adopting pure tidal flat salterns that incorporated large-scale production facilities still in operation today. 

Unlike other salt flats in Korea, Sinan-gun and Yeonggwang-gun are unique in their production of salt—they use reclaimed tidal mudflats. The process begins at high tide with the sluicing of seawater into reservoirs. Once the brine reaches a specific concentration, the water is moved to checkered salterns made of silt and clay for natural evaporation which can increase the salinity from 2-3 parts per thousand to 17-25 ppt. This can only be done in fair weather, but when the weather is bad, the salt farmer allows the water to sit in the haeju (brine tanks). Fine warm days produce “A” quality salt crystals which are large and flavorful, but cool to cold weather results in slower evaporation and smaller bitter-tasting crystals, thus “B” quality salt—less desirable and therefore less expensive.

On average salt crystallizes between 1-3 days, but the whole sea to harvest process takes about 25 days. Salt crystals are then stored in silos for 2-3 years in which time the bittern is reduced and the flavor improved.

Jeollanam-do is the central region for Korean salt production. Sinan-gun holds a dominant position in the consumer market, and Yeonggwang-gun products are essential for related industries. The salt from Sinan-gun typically reaches the market after the bittern has been removed, which takes about a year, while Yeonggwang-gun products are mostly used in the jeotgal (pickled seafood) and gulbi (dried croaker) industry after a 2-3 year-long process of removing the bittern.

The salterns in Sinan-gun and Yeonggwang-gun date back to the very late part of the Joseon Dynasty in the 19th century when Japan first introduced the salt-making process. Until that time, these two areas were key sites for the then prevalent “parched salt” making methods, the method of boiling down water from seawater stored in mudflats.

Korean salterns consist of three parts—reservoirs, evaporation ponds, and crystallization ponds. Production facilities like haeju (brine tanks), salt silos, and resident facilities for salt workers are next to the salterns. Reservoirs are used for storing seawater, and evaporation ponds increase the water's salinity with the help of the sun and the wind. On the fields for crystallization, the saline water turns into salt crystals, but it takes 1-3 years for the salt to be sold as a finished product because the bittern first needs to be extracted in long-term storage.

Supposedly the tidal flats along the western coast of the Korean peninsula are one of the world’s five most important tidal flats (an interesting statement posted in the UNESCO documents but one which lacks development and is not, as yet, logical to me). Korean tidal flats contain a high proportion of organic material, and the diverse species in these estuaries help to increase the mineral content such as calcium, potassium and magnesium needed for quality salt. The chloride in it helps maintain acid-base balance and plays a leading role in digestion while the sodium regulates nerve and muscle function, blood volume and electrolyte balance. As such and well recorded in history, salt is used as a seasoning and food preservative and is the key ingredient for controlling fermentation. Accordingly, sea salt accounts for the majority of salt used in Korea, a country with many food recipes requiring the food preserving fermentation process.

The Jeollanam-do Salterns as UNESCO Heritage?

The unique salterns of Sinan-gun and Yeonggwang-gun have been submitted for consideration as a UNESCO world heritage. South Korea claims that their salterns are unique in many ways.

• The haeju (brine tanks) are found only in Korea, where they have been built in preparation for the monsoon season.

• The salterns mark the boundary between tidal flat and human habitats, straddling the line between nature and culture. In nature, they are significant as a fish habitat and a resting spot for endangered migrant birds like plovers and black-faced spoonbills. As the salterns are located in tidal flats, they are part of an ecological treasury having great biodiversity. They rejuvenate surrounding ecosystems by releasing vegetative matter into rivers which in turn helps feed aquatic organisms in the waters as well as providing shelter and sustenance for migratory birds.

• In culture, they are a place for purification of pollutants (salt is traditionally symbolic of purification in Korean shamanism), and they are necessary for aesthetic appreciation and their more practical use—flood control. Culture came from rituals, traditions and beliefs that accompanied the salt production and harvest—farmers held shamanistic rituals called gosa to wish for abundant harvest along with making nodongyo (labor songs), distinctive songs to accompany salt production while working on their salt beds. Salt has also played a historical role for military purposes, architecture (soaking temple and palace foundation pillars in saltwater to prevent rot), and clothing.

In short, the continuance and preservation of the salterns ensures the continuance of the region’s ecological system, economy and local culture. Despite introducing some modern innovations like power equipment for transporting water, “the environment and natural salt production methods maintain the outstanding value of these saltworks as a living industrial heritage”.

Salterns Worldwide

Despite the majority of countries using refined salt from halite, a few regions worldwide still produce sea salt.

• Guerade in France is well-known for its ideal climate—abundant sunlight, dry weather, sufficient wind from the Atlantic—for sea salt production. The region was registered in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance in 1995. Compared to Korean sites where salt is produced on a daily basis, the French salt marshes harvest salt every 2-3 days. In terms of flooring, the Guerade sites continue to use soil panels, but Korean saltern panels have been changed to include a variety of forms—soil, pottery shards, tile and plastic mats (hm, this last material doesn’t sound like a positive innovation).

• In Savoy and Sicily, Italy salt is collected from fields only 1-2 times a year with machines several months after piling the salt crystals.

• In Dapier, Australia, salt produced in large fields is considered an ideal place for sea salt production thanks to hot, dry weather, convenient proxemics to a port, and broad infrastructure for resources—namely, machines are used for all operations.

• Japan, which introduced saltern production to Korea, started refined salt production in 1972. Since then, old salterns have all but disappeared, although it is said that solar salterns have recently been reopened in Kagawa, Okinawa. The Japanese extract sodium chloride from seawater by exchanging ions.

• In Vietnam, salt is harvested 1-2 times a year in Ho Chi Minh fields.

• Sea salt is also produced 1-2 times a year in Hainan Island, China.

• Hallstatt, Austria—the location of old salt mines—was designated as a World Heritage of an ancient city. (Not clear if the mines are still in production.)

• Wieliczka Salt Mines in Poland, another registered World Heritage, has a long history of salt mining dating back to the 13th century (again not clear if salt is still extracted).

• Lakes, valleys, and wells in various locations around the world also produce salt. Representative sites include the Dead Sea salt lakes, the Great Salt Lake in the United States, Shenhai brine wells in China, and Yanjin salt valley on the Tibetan Tea Road.

With its distinct seasonal divisions and high rates of evaporation, excepting the winter and the summer monsoon season, Korea's multi-step evaporation method results in a quantifiable brine concentration for producing sea salt. “The Sinan-gun and Yeonggwang-gun tidal flat salterns in particular are among the most creative and advanced of the world's saltern heritage.”

Sea Salt—A Decline in Consumption

Many countries make sea salt—France, Vietnam, China, Portugal, Mexico. Though 250 million tons of salt are annually produced worldwide, only 700,000 tons are actually sea salt, and only 400,000 tons of that is salt created from tidal flats. Sinan-gun, Jeollanam-do accounts for two-thirds of South Korea’s sea salt production, and 850 salt farms are tidal salt flat producers in the dozens of islands within the county.

Industrialization has affected sea salt production while cheap salt imports from China and Australia have resulted in Korean sea salt production declining to a bare minimum. In 2006 China became the world’s largest salt producer steaming ahead of the United States, Germany and India. Prices for Korean sea salt since that time dropped from W12,000 a 30-kilogram bag to just W4,000. However, bay salt once considered a mineral is now marketed as a food and is therefore protected by legislation in the Salt Management Act—a law for taking care of the old traditions of Korea.

While it seems that China may be under-selling Korean producers of salt, another drawback to slow Korean sea salt consumption and therefore production was that “Sea salt couldn’t be used in Korean restaurants for the last 10 years because the government considered it a health risk. It wasn’t pure enough,” said of Jeon, one salt farmer. “Call it the case of the unknown percentage. Sea salt is 80-84% sodium chloride. It’s the other 16-20% that worries Korean health authorities, which lead to the ban of salt in the last 10 years.”

Korean food revolves around six key ingredients—soybean paste, soy sauce, red pepper paste, kimchi, salted seafood and salt. Of them, salt is the foundation of the other five. Salt—namely, solar salt or sea salt according to many Korean foodies—takes center stage for most Korean food. Solar or tidal flat sea salt is unprocessed, moisture-rich and contains diverse minerals like calcium, magnesium, zinc, kalium and iron from the evaporated mineral-rich sea water which was stirred by winds and kissed by sunrays. With its minerals which expedite fermentation, solar sea salt and good Korean cooking are arguably inseparable.

The many islands of Sinan-gun. The pinpointed mark is the location of Taepyeong Salt Flats,
the largest solar evaporation salt farm in Korea.

A closer look at the small island where Taepyeong Salt Farm is located.

Taepyeong Salt Farm

Taepyeong Salt Farm, in operation since 1953, is the largest sun-dried aka solar salt producer in Korea, although it only produces about 15,000 tons of sea salt from its spread of 67 salt pans. The number of salt pans is quite vast compared to the number on other salt farms, and its salt storage buildings are similarly impressive—60 salt storage buildings in a 3-kilometer linear placement.

The information signboard states that the Taepyeong Salt Farm was created for the relief of refugees and to boost domestic salt production after the Korean War. Taepyeong as Korea's largest saltern was created by connecting Jeonjung-do and Hujeung-do with a bank to create a tideland. 

The Stone Salt Silo now used as a Salt Museum at the,Taepyeong Salterns, the largest saltern in Korea (in Jeung-do, Sinan-gun) has been designated as a Registered Cultural Heritage of Korea along with Daedong Saltern (in Bigeum-do, Sinan-gun). Jeung-do, Sinan-gun is designated as a Tidal Flats Provincial Park in Korea, and is also a member of Cittaslow, the first town in Asia to gain membership.

The salt shed itself was made from stones mined from a mountain nearby. With the construction of a wooden shed in the 1980s, it was turned into a warehouse, and in renovated to its present function as salt museum in 2007.

Taepyeong Salt Farms has 60 such storage sheds that are in a 3-kilometer long linear line-up.

One of the original stone-built salt storages from 1945 was renovated in 2007 into the present Salt Museum. The inside gallery houses exhibits on the different types of salt, a brief look at the history of salt, cultural influences, and physical aspects like mineral content. Also are historical artifacts and dioramas of the 60+ year history and development of salt production according to the methods of salt production via evaporation. Of particular interest to me was a cultural tidbit on ancient health in a display focused on the beliefs surrounding the marsh plant that thrives in salt flats—the powerfully mineral enriched plant hamcho (Salicornia herbacea).

Recently to encourage tourism, a wooden plank walkway was installed around the farm to give visitors a chance to follow the walkway and learn about salt production as well as see some of the plants—including hamcho—that thrive in the mud flats. From March to November, visitors are invited to participate in the hands-on experience of raking salt in the salt flats. For W10,000 people can visit the salt museum, walk the mud flat trail, harvest salt with large wooden rakes edged with squeegees, and after participating in hands-on salt production, visit the storehouse and get a 1kg bag of Taepyeong processed sea salt. And the icing on the cake isn’t cake but a dish of salt ice cream topped with a choice of powdered flavors—green tea, mango, grape, or cinnamon. Delicious!

To keep the salt as "pure" from contaminates as possible, putting on purpose-specific boots
in a "clean" area are required of all participants.

Then we filed out on boardwalks between salt pans to the designated pans that we were to harvest salt in.

Grab a homemade rake with a squeegee on the end and let's get started!

Various participants gathered around each salt pan.

Ready, begin! The water and salt needs to be pushed toward toward the center of the pan and piled in a heap. It's best if there is teamwork and everyone piles the salt-water at the same time ... but we learned that as we went along.

Everyone can participate. If you can walk on the slippery pan, then you're qualified to push. Even an eight-month pregnant lady was pushing and doing her very fair share.

This little girl was our most active participant!

After we got a decent pile of course we had to play a bit. Traditionally salt carriers used the baskets to bring salt in from the field. Now people use shovels and trolleys on rails (pictured later).

Then it became a competition who could pick up the heaviest baskets!

And then photo-shoot time! Several salt pans disappearing in the distance and hard to see in this picture (the very low building to the right) are a couple of haeju (brine tanks).

Water was traditionally pumped into the salt pans via a pedal water-wheel. Very hard work. Our group took turns filling the pan with water after we harvested the salt from it. In another three warm days the pan will be ready for harvesting again.

Some modern renovations to make carrying the salt to the storage buildings easier—wheeled trolleys on tracks.  

Shovels were "traditionally" used but it'd be really hard to rake everything into baskets. Shovels certainly make the movement of heavy salt a whole tons easier!

Of course registering a few days prior to the activity is essential in order to be sure that a flat would have salt ready for the harvesting.

Taepyeong Salt Farm, registered as a Modern Cultural Heritage in 1997, and Sinan mudflat have been designated as Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO. And in 2010 they were collectively submitted to the tentative list as a World Heritage site.

Miscellaneous Info Related to the Salt Flats

For those interested in reading more on the historical insight of the salt flats in Korea, read the book Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyongwon and the Late Choson Dynasty.

In Sinan-gun, the island Sinui-do, which was featured in a 2008 episode of the KBS2 channel's travel program, "1 night 2 days", is the largest producer of sea salt in South Korea. It is also the area where a man held as a slave to work the salt fields escaped from just last year (early 2015). In fact, there are five reports in the last decade of slaves escaping from the hard labor of the salt fields. In this time of “human rights” and rampant social media, the Kim Seong-baek story went wild and stirred up a lot of people’s sentiment.

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Sources used:

Salt farm, full of history and life
Salterns (UNESCO)Taepyung Salt Farm (official site)
South Korean Salt Farming
Taepyeong Salt Farm (태평염전)
The Healing Power of Traditional Korean Foods 
The islands of abuse: Inside South Korea's slave farms for the disabled: Kim Seong-baek worked without pay as a slave in a salt mine