Hanok: Traditional Residence Architecture in Seoul

Among the fine traditional Korean houses which have been transported from elsewhere to form the Namsangol Hanok Village, at the foot of Namsan, stands a house built by master craftsman Lee Seung-eop. The house originally stood in Samgak-dong, next to Gwangyo Bridge over Cheonggyecheon stream, but in the course of development and redevelopment, the house recognized as a fine specimen of middle-class architecture, was dismantled and reconstructed in a collection of other hanok to create the Namsangol Hanok Village. The house was originally known as 'Hongmun (Red Gate) Seot-gol (Standing Town), Ibyeokdong-daek (residence of Ibyeokdong)'.

This remarkably fine house with unusual embellishments was built for his own use by Lee Seung-up, the master builder who worked on rebuilding Gyeongbok Palace in the latter half of the 19th century. Gyeongbok Palace, which had fallen into disrepair over many decades, was ordered to be restored by Heungseon Daewongun (1820-1899), the father who ruled in stead of young King Kojong (1852-1919).

Approximately a decade after master carpenter Lee Seung-eop constructed this house, he encountered financial hardships and was forced to sell, whereupon in 1889 the yangban grandfather (Kyoungju Lee clan) of Lee Sang-oak, our tour guide but of no direct relationship to builder Lee, purchased the house. Three generations of Lee (Yi) lived in the house: Yi Chaeyun (1837-1917), Yi Chong'ik (1889-1966), and Yi Yong'u (1917 - ??? [the book was published in 1998]). 

Lee Sang-oak, our guide, was born in this house, as were his two sisters and elder brother. He lived there until 1964 (he was about 20) when the house was sold to P'unghan Company and remodeled. From 1970 - 1996 Cho Heung Bank used the residence as a small bank museum. During that time, in 1977, Seoul city government designated the residence as City Cultural Asset No. 20. And finally in 1996, the house was sold to the City of Seoul along with four other residences around the city and all five were relocated to the north side of Namsan with the intent of making a park for the preservation of traditional architecture.

Guide Lee Sang-Oak told us stories of his growing up, the foods and cultural events enjoyed by the family, the symbolism and in particular the pungsujiri (geomantic principles) employed in the architecture, and other insights about the construction of the home, its impact on King Kojong (story later!), and details about personal life. Whoever really considers the stories the walls can tell if someone is willing to patiently listen!

Dr. Lee Sang-Oak and Brother Anthony, friends that go way back, explaining the topography of Seoul and why the original location of his house was so propitious. Located in front of the "Red Gate" entrance to his former house/courtyard.

Dr Lee Sang-Oak explaining the functions of the various parts of the house ... and how they were originally, and then after "renovation". Basically, as one historian puts it, "the city butchered his house". To give examples, brick walls are now plastered, whitewashed walls, the ondol passageways are minuscule and nonfunctional now, the traditional three-steps leading to the house were reduced to the convenient one. [Three steps up meant as a person approached house of prestige or standing, the visitor had to look up and be struck by the grandeur created by height.

Evidently the Namsangol Falconer's Organization has an operator here. There was always a stream of kids around the guy with his kestrel and his falcon. He didn't mind if people touched the larger bird either ... and the bird didn't seem to mind either!

For W5,000 a person could have the kestrel fly and land on his or her hand.

Petting was encouraged!

"Commercial" over, now back to Dr. Lee Sang-Oak. Dr. Lee showed up the geomantic symbols. The whole house had symbols hidden on walls, corners. roof beams, and more.

Pungsujiri (geomatric symbols here): the inverted swastika for Buddhistic thought, bats, trigrams like those found on the Korean flag (each trigram represents a humor: earth, air, etc), clouds, patterned windows for well wishes, ...

 

Originally this was the men's residence and was just a single room. Now it's divided into guest residence rooms for privacy.

Even the bird looks at the woman in hanbok gliding around the grounds.

A bit of entertainment for the foreigners and kids who visit the hanok village: "Walk Like a Yangban". Walking like a yangban was to walk confidently (thus, the wide appearing tiles for "authentic" practice),

The Red Moon Gate, the single entrance to the house: Originally the gate stood tall and proud like this one. What's interesting is that when there were no high-rises, King Kojong could look out of Gyeongbokgung and see ... the Red Moon Gate, and supposedly, discomfited he asked, "Whose gate is that?" And once he found out ... the Lee family was asked, which means told, to lower the gate so that King Kojong wouldn't see a gate taller than himself in the near distance. Of course they lowered the house ... and had to bend way down in order to enter, which conveyed indirectly humility to the king.

A spring look at Dr. Lee's former residence.

____________________________________________________________________

About our guide and the author of the book on his first home:

Book: A Traditional Residential Architecture in Seoul: A Study of the Yi Byeokdong Residence of Hongmun-dong (1998), Hollym University Press.

Sang-Oak Lee earned his B.A. and M.A. from Seoul National University, an additional M.A. from the University of Illinois, and a Ph.D. in Linguistics with a doctoral fellowship from Harvard University. He is now an emeritus professor at Seoul National University, where he was for many years a professor in the Department of Korean Language and Literature.

___________________________________________________________

The essentials about the house -- from Dr. Lee Sang-Oak's book (pp 10-13).

Catastrophic Losses of Korean Architecture

Peter Bartholomew shares "Untold Story" about what has tragically happened to old architectural structures in Korea. The Untold Story: 1,800 Years of Korean Architectural Heritage & History Demolished in the 20th Century (Today, Out of Sight & Out of Mind!)

The lecture at the Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch was given by Peter Bartholomew, long-term resident of Korea, and one who has a passion for Korea's old architecture. His passion is so large and his interest so great that he has lived in a hanok that he has repaired and maintained. As I understand it, his hanok is actually two hanoks renovated to create a single larger structure. His floor heats the traditional way with just a few sticks of wood in the very economically functioning ondol clay-constructed floor. His passion extends beyond his own hanok and to the history and structure, and sadly, the disappearance of the hanoks throughout the Koreas. Three times he has lodged lawsuits against the Korean government in order to be allowed to remain living in one of Korea's very very few remaining hanoks still remaining in Seoul (his own house!) and three times he has won. The last time he won it seems that the Korean government is finally seeing a glimmer of importance in retaining the tiny few hanoks that still remain. What wasn't destroyed by the Japanese, and this was a considerable number, has been destroyed by the Korean government in the name of modernizing their great cities ... and country sides ... and in general, not placing value on their own rich history. 

The following is a write-up of the lecture presented by Peter and as written on the RASKB web page.

♣ Illustrated with maps, drawings (Royal Archives) & photos of sites today and during late Choseon Period to early Japanese occupation period.

Korea’s countryside in the early 20th Century - Korea was dominated everywhere by impressive walled cities, towns & villages, palatial provincial administrative centers resembling small palaces and royal palaces in the Kyongki Province region. The architecture was of palatial scale and style, similar to palaces in Seoul today.

Regrettably very little of this remains today. Most foreigners assume that Korea is a country without a significant architectural history beyond the palaces in Seoul and Buddhist temple compounds. Nothing could be farther from the truth!

During their occupation from 1910 to 1945, the Japanese authorities ordered and carried out the demolition of over 15,000 buildings in these royal compounds throughout Korea from the Manchurian border to Jeju Island, as part of their program to erase the magnificent architectural evidence of Korean independence and the authority and grandeur of the Korean royal (imperial) authority and sophistication and replace it with Japanese models.

Suwon Walled City ~ West Gate and Watch Tower

Haemi Town Walls, Gate and Defense Tower

Until very recently Korean people themselves were unaware that these royal palace and administrative compounds existed, with their magnificent walls, pavilions and monumental buildings. Fortunately, during the past 10 years there has been a movement to recover part of what has been lost. Archeological excavations are taking place nation-wide to find the remains of buildings demolished by the Japanese. Town walls and pavilions are being restored / rebuilt and some of the major buildings reconstructed, following drawings and descriptions in the Chosun Royal Archives (Kyujanggak).

This lecture introduces to the audience the vast scale of Korea’s provincial monumental architectural heritage pre-Japanese occupation using photos before demolitions and of the sites today, with explanations of the cultural, historical and architectural importance of this vast body of destroyed heritage.

The King’s chambers in Suwon Palace (“Haeng Kung”)

Peter Bartholomew has lived in Korea continuously since 1968 and has engaged in the study of Korean history, culture and architecture during most of that time. During the late 1960’s to early 70’s he lived in Kangnung on the estate of a branch of the Chosun Dynasty royal family and was privileged to learn in depth about Chosun period culture from the owner, a lady born in the late 1890’s. Since that time Peter has continued his research in the field and now is well known as an activist for heritage architecture preservation. In 2011 he received the Sejong Citation for Contributions to Korean Culture (from the Lee Myung Bak government) and now serves on the President Committee for Cultural Enrichment (문화융성위원회), working for improvement of better understanding of Korea’s traditional cultural attributes.

1870 Royal Archives Administrative Drawing: Anju Royal Provincial Government Center

Jeju Royal Administration Centre

Remaining buildings of the Songchon Royal Administrative Compound ~ 1930s

The content Peter Bartholomew shared is phenomenal and I think I can fairly say that no other person is more passionate about traditional Korean architecture. Peter's wealth of knowledge on the subject is daunting, as can be seen from the detail in numbers and organization in the following slides from his presentation. (Actually this presentation was Part II. I'm sorry to miss Part I. Where was I that I would miss such information?!?) 

[click on pictures to enlarge]

Images and Maps: Monumental Architecture (circa 1910 - 1930s)

There are no original Haeng Kung remaining in Korea. All 15 palaces were demolished.

The only example standing is the recently reconstructed "Hwaseong Haeng Gung" in Suwon.

Kyeongbokgung - In 1945 after the Japanese occupation and prior to the Korean War only 12 structures remained out of 300+.

Demolitions in Seoul after 1954:

• All "Pyeol Gung" except Unhyeon Kung
• Sungrye Mun (South Gate in 1962 and recently rebuilt)
• Stone structures: bridges and city wall, especially Cheonggye Stream
• Chong Chin Bu (Office of Royal Household)
• Kum Ui Yeong (built early 1600s)
• Vernacular buildings (residences and commercial bridges)

Cheonggye Stream's 10 stone bridges, retaining walls and stream bed paving

• The stream - first constructed during 1400s
• Demolition starting from late 1950s
• Major destruction during 1969-1970
• 2005-2006 final remains removed from the current Cheonggye Stream "restoration"

a stone bridge of Cheonggye Stream before demolition/removal

A History of Korean Housing

The Korea Foundation offered a series of lectures on Korean architecture, and I jumped at the opportunity to take be a participant in the five lectures. Tonight the speaker was Professor Jeong BongHee, Phd in Architecture working at Seoul National University. I've heard many western presenters on the topic of the hanok, but here was a chance to hear an entire lecture series on Korean architecture, and this lecture targeted the development of the hanok. Of particular interest on Professor Jeong's professional career printout, I was particularly fascinated to see his recent research interests on Korean architecture:

• The Usage of Traditional Roof Frame and Fire Prevention Design in the Deajojeon Complex Reconstruction in Changdeokgung during the 1917 to 1921 period (2004)
• The Time of the Effect of Neighborhood Unit Principle to the Planning of Residential Areas in Seoul in the Japanese Colonial Times (2011)
• A Study on the Transformation of the Old Palatial Buildings into Hospitals (2012)
• characteristics of Communalization of Government Managing Apartment Houses Built in Korean from the 1960's to the Early 1970's (2012)
• A Parametric Modeling Methodology Optimized for Korean Traditional House (2012)

He also listed five books as being authored by himself, and the content of this lecture on the history of the hanok comes from his 2012 book, Hanok and the History of Korean House.

Definition of the hanok

Against the expectations, the term hanok was not coined so long ago. With the opening of ports to outside influences, the term was coined to separate Korean traditional housing structures from foreign modern architecture. Similarly, hanbok and hansik were coined to specify the difference between the indigenous and that of the outside. The terms hanok and yangok -- western-style house -- were first shown together in "Papers about Houses" written in 1908.

So, what is the most distinctive difference between hanok and yangok? Hanok adopts Chinese wooden architecture, which separates it from western and other architectural styles that tend to incorporate bricks, masonry, logs and styles employing iron elements. In Chinese wooden architecture which was used in Korea, China and Japan, wooden brackets and beams were fitted together only through the use of 90-degree angles in order to support the weight of a roof. These structures were supported by wooden columns and regimented distances denoting the khan, a measurement used in sizing buildings and ultimately gathering rooms.

Hanok architecture in a government office or a house are shoe-less gathering places, that is, they must be maintained as clean spaces separate from the outdoors and places of comfort and relaxation. Hanok use both ondol and maru to acclimate to summer and winter. The evolution of the hanok to incorporate the economical heating system has taken hundreds, if not, thousands of years.

Development of hanok in prehistoric and ancient excavation sites

The first ancient homes in Korea are presumed to be those of partially dugout spaces covered by grass roofs. In ancient times, semi-permanent houses were constructed with columns and walls built on the hard-packed earth and having thick, hard tiled roofs.

The early ondol were seen in Manchuria and the Maritime Province of Siberia, and covered only a portion of the ground, much like the heating in today's Kang of Northeast China. It is assumed that by the middle of the Goryeo dynasty, ondol encompassed the entire floor of the typical dwelling. An example of this has been excavated at the Hoeamsa Temple constructed during the Goryeo dynasty.

Maru has two origin stories. The first is, the maru has its roots in a raised cottage which can be built on slanted ground or over a body of water. Such examples of maru appear in Southeastern China, Japan, and South-east Asia. The raised floors were essential for keeping pests and vermin out while provided some circulation of air to ease the effects of humidity. In the second story, the maru is a cognate of marae, maru, mari and meori, which have meanings as being high and noble. In this sense, the maru is assumed to originate from a sanctum, the venue where people pray and perform ancestral rites.

Development of hanok in medieval times

Ondol, maru and 'kitchen' have different forms of floor. Ondol have hard, warm, clean and smooth floors using plaster over flat stones laid on gas ducts. Maru have rough and dry wooden floors, and 'kitchen' have unclean earthen floor on which a furnace is built and water and possibly waste flow. Therefore, combining all three floor structures in the larger building structure took development.

Putting the ondol and maru together was the conventional tradition. The Maeng clan house following the house styles of Goryeo dynasty and that of the royal bedchamber show a good example of this combination.

In houses for commoners, however, combining ondol and 'kitchen' -- that is, living and cooking -- became the established trend. 'A three-room house with a straw-thatched roof' was the representative house style in Joseon dynasty; it had the lower-floored kitchen and the uniquely efficient wood-burning stove, the buttumak, which was used for both cooking and heating of rooms. The buttumak was instrumental in heating the ondol floor in the two rooms of the typical peasant house. Peasant houses did not have maru as a house needed at least four bays (?) in order to have such a construction.

By the middle of the Joseon dynasty, the hanok with the minimum of four bays had become the established norm. The typical layout of the minimal four-bay hanok was 'kitchen-room-maru-room', but this arrangement differed by region as the hanok were built to best suit the climate and topographical differences in the various Korean regions.

click to enlarge

Development of social features affecting architectural styles

In the latter part of the Joseon dynasty harsh policies and clannishness brought about distinctive changes in the hanok architectural structure. Hanok structures were affected by clan communities where people having the same surname and place of family origin lived together and established clan tell-tale architecture markings. Tile roofs, symbols of elevated society, were replacing straw roofs, but the additional weight meant roof extensions had to be shortened. Lengthier roofs protected walls from the ravaging effects of rain and space outside of rooms with heated ondol floors, particularly in summer, were desired, so the toenmaru, the attached floor or rather the space around the house, was added and overhead the roof was extended to protect this outside living space.

The toenmaru extended the hanok and strengthened its function as living space. Thus, the toenmaru allowed the family to move its work space, shrine and communal facilities outside of the house. Clan villages shared its communal functions also, and a shrine for the same ancestor, a school, monuments, a well, a washing place and a square were constructed in a village having the head family house at the nucleus. Of course the head family had a higher floor and/or larger structure than other hanok to give physical credence to the elevated status of the clan head.

Urban hanok, modern times

With port openings, even in the early days, foreigners -- diplomats, missionaries, soldiers -- engaged in commerce or light industry, and to meet their needs they created and introduced a new style of architecture, which gradually transformed the traditional cityscape.

Since Seoul was over-populated even before the opening of the port, and urban dwellers didn't farm, they didn't have spacious yards. To best fit in the confined city spaces, the hanok were built with ㄱ ㄷ shaped structures and rarely had fences. Most Seoul hanok in those modern times consisted of the centralized main building and to the side the servants' quarter, which was built against the wall surrounding the main building and the garden.

With the industrialization and urbanization in the mid 1920's, the population of Seoul grew substantially, causing a housing shortage. In effect, houses were built by the dozens and were started to be traded as a ready-made commodity.

The ready-made urban hanok had several particular features. First, the standard living-plan type of house was created by forecasting prospective buyers, and accordingly, living styles of urban residents became stereotyped. The second, framework in mass production became standardized, not to mention extravagant architectural decorations and materials -- e.g. foreign materials like glass and zinc -- were frequently used. These houses had ㄷ-shape with several such housing constructions stood side by side.

Western style houses, the yangok

After the Korean War the mass construction of western-style houses began. Typically Western-style houses were built with concrete blocks and bricks. As yet, Korean people preferred the hanok, and the construction of hanok continued till the 1960s in provincial cities.

With the enactment of the Act on Comprehensive Plan of National Land Construction in the early 1960s, the construction of wooden buildings was restricted, yet the balance between supply and demand for timber became increasingly disrupted. In result, construction of the hanok was halted in Seoul and other regions and the yangok -- built primarily with bricks and concrete with only small pieces of wood used in the framing of windows -- became the housing construction of choice.

By this time, indoor revisions were altering the traditional structure inside the house -- indoor flush toilets and shared living room-dining room-kitchen (LDK, combination of kitchen and living room) appeared. With the indoor kitchen, gas or oil, separated from fuel for heating, was used for cooking. The new style of house had a centralized layout with the living room at the center of the other rooms. This layout was adopted by apartment constructions which became widely popularized after the mid-1970's. In the centralized layout, the living room formed the central space and inherited the role and status of the rural hanok courtyard.

The apartment continued to change the inner living space. Since the mid-1990's, a unique wooden floor called ondol-maru has been used for bedrooms, the living room and the kitchen. Ondol-maru is a new floor type having the same surface as the maru while having the same heating system as the ondol in hanok. Therefore, the apartment of today inherits space organization of the traditional hanok and integrates the three types of floor by constructing a living room at the center (a replacement for the courtyard), and the ondol-maru as the single-leveled floor space which includes the kitchen.

New trend of hanok

In the end of the 1990's, the number of apartment units started to exceed that of detached houses. In 2007, the apartment became the largest housing unit, accounting for more than half of the total number of housing units, especially as high-rise apartments efficiently use small earth spaces. Despite the need for earth space to create hanok, their eco-friendly structure with elements of green spaces around are now desirable, and therefore, projects are set in motion to recreate hanok in commercial and public spaces along with the movement to preserve or construct hanok villages, like that of Bukchon Hanok Village.

Such new created hanok can be classified as follows:

"Authentic hanok" which recreates the appearance and configuration of traditional hanok while adopting aspects of modern facilities and materials. "Authentic hanok" are constructed by carpenters who carry on the legacy of artisans from traditional times.

"Modern hanok" are designed by architects. "Modern hanok" combine traditional forms of hanok with the modern architect's interpretation. The function of the "modern hanok" is not limited to a residence but accommodates diverse usage.

"Korean traditional room" in a modern building, that is, for example, an ondol room that a hotel might offer to extend the usage beyond sleeping facility to a floor or space with multi-purposes.

Walking with Peter Bartholomew

Many people are unaware of the many historical sites in Seoul, but Peter Bartholomew, former president of the RAS and living in Korea for well over 40 years, gives a tour of just, the big historical sites of Seoul, focusing on the architecture and especially the architecture of the palaces and yang ban residences. 

Here is the RAS write-up of the excursion:

This excursion is organised to explain to residents and visitors to Seoul the vast cultural heritage and history in and around the extensive royal compounds. While walking through historical compounds and buildings we will be shown how Seoul's massive palace compounds were organized and contiguously linked, from the five major palaces (one “Pŏp-Kung” and four“E-Kung”), to the 15 detached palaces (“Pyŏl-Kung”) and their service palace compounds. The palace compounds originally extended from Dŏksu to the present Seoul National University Hospital in the "Daehak‑ro" area, with insightful explanations of the history and reasons for their designs, uses and aesthetic layout. We will see little known nooks of virtually forgotten royal compounds.

The leader will explain the events leading to the establishment of Seoul as capital of Korea in the 1390’s, how (and why) it was originally laid out, and its evolution during the following 500 years into a massive royal complex comprising 5 major palaces, over 15 detached palaces, government administrative centres, numerous shrines and how the city grew up around it, first as primarily a royal government center and then evolving into the economic / commercial, social and cultural centre as well. He will also describe the tragic wars and purposeful demolitions that have erased all but a handful of the original buildings and compounds.

Dŏk Su Palace

This palace became the seat of the royal government only from 1896, following the assassination of Queen Min earlier that year and the subsequent abandonment of Gyeongbok (Kyŏngbok) Palace. It was the centre of the vortex of imperial power games swirling around Korea in the late 19th to early 20th century, with China, Japan, Russia, the British Empire and the United States all having a stake in the game. The tour leader will describe these events while visiting the very buildings and rooms in which King Gojong tried to steer Korea through the maelstrom of international political intrigue. Additionally, the leader will describe in detail the architectural and aesthetic aspects of Korean traditional palace design and science, using this palace’s exceptional styling to illustrate these points.

Dŏk‑Su Palace Library, “Chung Myŏng Chŏn” (Jung Myeong Jeon),which was formerly part of Dŏk Su palace, later becoming the Seoul Club from around 1906 until the 1970's, in which certain ministers in the King Gojong court were coerced by the Japanese to put the royal seal on the Protectorate Treaty papers, called the “Ulsa” Treaty in 1906, and the adjoining former Czarist Russian Legation site with other former diplomatic mission sites in Jeong‑Dong. All of these buildings were part of the violent period of imperial competition of the 1880’s through 1910 that finally led to Japan taking over this country, with Korea squeezed in the middle.

Kyŏng-Hui Palace (Gyeong Hui Palace), a little known secondary palace on Shinmun-ro 2-ga built in 1616 and having a chequered and colourful history (later became Seoul Boy's High School site and now partially restored as a palace). The Seoul History Museum occupies the front part of the palace compound. This is an exceptional example of Chosŏn (Joseon) period aesthetic, being built on a hill with different elevations for each of the ceremonial courtyards and buildings.

Meditating in front of the central building at Kyunghuigung.
This quiet palace is recently reconstructed (with work still in progress), little known and is great for relaxing and for excellent beauty spots as the palace is built on a slope and each of the buildings is a bit higher than the previous.

The compound of the 600 year-old White Pine in Hyoja Dong, and several of the large traditional Korean houses (hanok) in that former Choson Dynasty aristocratic residential area. Important sites surrounding Gyeongbok (Kyŏngbok) Palace, formerly serving the royal compound, while it was the center of the Joseon (Chosŏn) Royal Government until the late 19th Century. The leader will describe the spatial relations, history of development and architectural aspects that make Korea’s traditional architecture so unique. While we will not go into Gyeongbok (Kyŏngbok) Palace, the leader will explain the complex, vast layout and history of the largest Korean royal palace complex ever built. We then will walk between the north wall of Gyeongbok Palace and the “Blue House,” the official compound of the President of the Republic of Korea on our way to “Bukchon” / Ga-Hoe Dong.

The Blue House, resident of the Korean president. When in the area either walking on this street behind Gyeongbokgung or hiking on the hiking trail behind the Blue House, photos taken in the direction of the Blue House are strictly forbidden, except in photo zones like this one.

The Jong‑Chin‑Bu, Office of the Royal Household, the An‑Dong Detached Palace (An‑Guk‑Dong), and Seoul's only remaining aristocratic "great house" (99 "kan") house, the home of Korea's second president, Yun Po‑Sun, and other significant homes in the Ga‑Hoe Dong area, still occupied today by the son of Yun Po-Sun.

The Royal Astrological Observatory next to Chang‑Dok Palace (on the grounds of Hyundai’s headquarters), and the Unhyŏn Palace, former residence of the Daewon-gun, or Prince Regent, Yi Ha-ung. Unhyŏn Palace is the only remaining (somewhat!) in-tact “detached palace,” where offspring of the king (those who would not become the next king) lived up through the late 1960’s to 1980’s, when expelled by the Korean Government. The Taewon-gun's second son, born and raised in Unhyŏn Palace, went on to become King Kojong, the second to last reigning king in Korea prior to colonization (and the last King who truly reigned with power of the state; the last monarch, King Sunjong, was put into power by the Japanese in 1907 was simply their puppet!). This compound has residential buildings of exceptionally refined, sophisticated architecture which will be explained in their historical, aesthetic and execution contexts and a two story European style residential palace building, the last of its style remaining in Korea.

Other interesting Chosŏn Dynasty period homes and structures along the way will be explained and put into context, especially in the "Hyoja-Dong" area and in "Ka-Hoe-Dong" (“Bukchon”), the other primarily aristocratic residential area of the Joseon (Chosŏn) period, between the Gyeongbok and Changdok Palaces.

We are fortunate to have as our excursion leader Mr. Peter Bartholomew. Mr. Bartholomew has lived in Korea for more than 40 years and has made an intensive study of the Joseon (Chosŏn) Dynasty period from the architectural point of view with analysis of its history, culture and politics. He has made a special study into the evolutionary aspects of the royal capital city of Seoul. His fascinating article entitled "Choson Dynasty Royal Compounds ‑ Windows to a Lost Culture" can be found in Volume 68 of Transactions of the RAS, Korea Branch. He will continuously narrate the excursion with historical, cultural and aesthetic / architectural descriptions.

Hanok: A Sociological Perspective

The Korea Foundation hosted a series of lectures on Korean architecture for 50 or so foreigners who expressed interest. Of course I jumped at the chance. This lecture is specific to the hanok and some sociological factors in the construction of that building style.  Professor Han Jae-su, professor of architectural engineering at Halla University, was the presenter. He gave us a handout that he used as the backbone of his presentation (written in full below), and on his abbreviated resume which he also gave to us, he listed one of his books, which might prove rather interesting for someone interested in the Joseon architecture and can also read Korean:  "Secret of the Capital of Goryeo, Gaekyung".

Joseon Society and Lifestyle Reflected in Hanok

The Korean people have long placed an emphasis on discipline, which serves as a cornerstone of Confucian practices. During the Joseon Dynasty, this respect for discipline came to be reflected in the living space of people. The Joseon Dynasty social order included the king and royal family at the top, followed by five social classes: yangban, joong-in, yigyo, yangin and cheonin, in addition to Buddhist monks.

The yangban elite class included dongban, government officials, and seoban, military officers, who were classified into nine ranks. The yangban resided in houses known as ban-ga.

Below the yangban was the joong-in class of professionals that included physicians and technical specialists who did not maintain an official position. The yigyo class, which included people engaged in certain occupations, was lower than the classes of officials and professionals. The yang-in class included the common people, while the cheon-in class was at the bottom of the social order and enjoyed little opportunity for any kind of social advancement.

The royal compounds, known as gung (palace - of which there are only five total), have a similar construction style as the yangban residences and its women's quarters, but with a larger scale in order to house members of the royal family and their servants. As compared to minor palaces, the major palaces feature a prominent throne hall to signify the king's authority.

The layout of temple grounds has been based on the design of royal palace compounds since the Three Kingdoms Period, with Daewoongjeon, the temple's main building, being surrounded by living quarters. However, the halls where Buddhist services are conducted are noticeably different from the buildings within the palace grounds.

Homes of the yangban upper class featured a soseuldaemun main gate that was high enough for a palanquin to pass through. The upper class had the financial means to build large-size houses which included great attention to functionality as well as aesthetic considerations. A lower-class household, regardless of its accumulated wealth, lived in a middle-class home, but those of the upper class without financial means might live in humble house. [Size of home specific to social class was tightly regulated.]

Min-ga refers to the homes of the people, but the term was generally used to describe the house of a commoner of the middle and lower classes. A straw-thatched roof was the representative characteristic of a commoner's house. The houses of commoners came in various sizes and layouts according to the local topography, climate, and economic status of a region. Especially climate was a major factor. Commoners were not affluent enough to decorate their houses so attention was paid to functionality and simplicity. Nevertheless, the basic structure for a hanok includes three kan, the square area formed by four support posts, which served as kitchen, living room, and daechung, a wood-floor veranda.

Rooms were secluded and regarded as private areas, in contrast to the daechung's function as a reception area for guests. Traditionally, the living room was a multipurpose space where people ate meals and slept on a floor paved with flat stones, rather than a bed. People sat on cushions rather than chairs so the floor needed to always be swept clean and people would remove their shoes before entering the room.

The hanok includes distinctive features, which resulted form efforts to adapt to the natural environment and social conditions. Even for a house built on a hillside, the ground would be left in its original state. Natural stone blocks were used for the foundation. The hanok's construction materials mainly included wood and earth. The most unique features of the hanok are its innovative ondol, an under-floor heating system, maru, a wooden floor area that helped to regulate the interior temperature all year around, and overhanging eaves.

Houses are positioned to face south for temperature and lighting considerations. Overhanging eaves reduce exposure to direct sunlight during summer and the upward curved rafters provide an aesthetic harmony to the overall construction. Arrangement of buildings was asymmetric with a courtyard area in between structures. Even when building on a sloping ground, the land would not be leveled off. Main buildings would be placed on the higher ground and the other structures on the lower level. Rooms as well included upper and lower sides.

Some of my quickie notes:

• The prototype of the Korean house has three parts: (1) kitchen, (2) private room, (3) maru (unheated wooden floor where people take a rest).

• The Korean traditional house is classified by the type of material that is used:

• rice straw for the roof - 조가 

• pine tree - 노와 

• tile - 기와 

• They are also classified by the building patterns employed in their construction: ㄱ ... ㅁ ... ㅂ ... ㄷ ...ㄹ - These are the patterns traditionally used in constructing hanok.

• The royal palace (궁) was the venue where the king, his mother, grandmother and his wife lived. The 궁궐 or 궐 was where the king carried out his official affairs and was the core building of the palace ground. The living quarters in the 궁  and the official compartments (궐) were dissimilar in construction reflecting their intended purpose.

• Bureaucrats lived in ㄷ ... ㅂ ... ㅁ ... shaped houses.

• Middle-class, like those in 북천 lived in ㅁ-shaped houses. Houses constructed in the 1920s for the middle-class were ㅁ ... ㄷ ... ㅂ shaped.